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In the absence of robust testing programs, timely and detailed outbreak reporting is essential for HIV control., Unsafe injection practices and injection drug use have been linked to multiple HIV outbreaks in Pakistan since 2003; however, few studies have systematically analyzed the causes of these outbreaks. We conducted a systematic review of published English-language literature indexed in bibliographic databases and search engines and a focused gray literature review to collate and analyze all reported HIV outbreaks in Pakistan during 2000–2019. Of 774 unique publications reviewed, we identified 25 eligible publications describing 7 outbreaks. More than half occurred during 2016–2019. The primary sources of transmission were iatrogenic transmission, affecting children, persons with chronic medical conditions, and the general population (4 outbreaks); injection drug use (2 outbreaks); and a combination of both (1 outbreak). In the absence of robust HIV testing and surveillance in Pakistan, timely and detailed outbreak reporting is important to understand the epidemiology of HIV in the country.

Performance evaluation and design of civil facilities against earthquakes is a challenge to engineers because of the large uncertainty in the seismic demand and capacity of structures. The purpose of the study is to perform comparative analytical investigation of performance-based behavior between Moment Resisting Frames with Structural shear Walls, Concentric Braced Frames & Buckle Resisting Braced Frames of a concrete structure by using ETABS-2017 software. The comparative analytical evaluation of the study will be based on the parameters such as displacement, inter-story drift, pushover curve and life expectancy level. The purpose of the study is to obtain a structural system which is more efficient, reliable and strong in its nature and strength.

Introduction: COVID-19, a novel disease, appeared in December 2019 in China and rapidly spread across the world. Till the second week of April 2020, high incidence (2.9/100,000) and cases fatality rates (1.7%) were observed in Pakistan. This study was conducted to determine the temporal and spatial distribution of the first 100 deaths attributed to COVID-19 in Pakistan and their associated demographic factors. Method: A record review of the first 100 deaths reported among RT-PCR confirmed COVID-19 cases was conducted. Demographic, epidemiological, and risk factors information was obtained associated comorbidities and clinical signs and symptoms were recorded and frequencies were determined. Results: A total of 100 mortalities with an overall case fatality rate of 1.67% (CFR) were analyzed. The median age of patients was 64.5 years (IQR: 54-70) with 75% (n=75) males. Among all deaths reported, 71 (71%) cases had one or more documented comorbidities at the time of diagnosis. The most frequently reported co-morbidities were: hypertension (67%), followed by Diabetes Mellitus (45%) and Ischemic Heart Diseases (27%). The most frequent presenting symptoms were shortness of breath (87%) and fever (79%). The median duration of illness was eight days (IQR: 4-11 days), the median delay reaching hospital to seek health care was three days (IQR: 0-6 days) while the median duration of hospital stay was also three days (IQR: 1-7 days). Among all, 62% had no history of international travel. The most affected age group was 60-69 years while no death reported in the age group below 20 years.

Background: From September 2014, a tertiary care hospital in Karachi, Pakistan, started diagnosing 3–5 cases/month of a yeast locally identified as Saccharomyces spp. resistant to fluconazole. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identified the isolates as Candida auris. The Pakistan Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program (FELTP) and the hospital investigated the outbreak from April 2015 to January 2016. Objective: The aim of the outbreak investigation was to determine the risk factors and to inform measures to limit the spread of the organism in the hospital. Methods: Medical records, nursing schedules and infection control practices were reviewed. Sixty-two age- and sex-matched hospital controls from the same wards were identified. Results: Thirty cases (17 males) were identified (mean age = 51.6 years, age range = 2–91 years), case fatality was 53%. Multivariate logistic regression showed that a history of surgery within 90 days of diagnosis, admission to the emergency department and history of chronic kidney disease were significantly associated with C. auris infection. Discussion: This is the report of the outbreak investigation that triggered a global exploration of C. auris as a newly identified multidrug-resistant nosocomial organism, spreading within the hospital, especially among patients with invasive procedures. Unfortunately, we could not identify any specific source of the outbreak nor stop the transmission of the organism.

Background During August 2017, increased numbers of suspected dengue fever cases were reported in the hospitals of Rawalpindi district. A case control study was conducted to determine the risk factors among urban areas, dengue serotype, and recommend preventive measures. Objective The objective of the investigation was to determine the risk factors among urban areas, dengue serotype, and recommend preventive measures. Methods A case was defined as having acute febrile illness with one or more of the following symptoms: retro-orbital pain, headache, rash, myalgia, arthralgia, and hemorrhage. The cases were residents of Rawalpindi and were confirmed for dengue fever from August 30, 2017, to October 30, 2017. All NS1 confirmed cases from urban areas of Rawalpindi were recruited from tertiary care hospitals. Age- and sex-matched controls were selected from the same community with a 1:1 ratio. Frequency, univariate, and multivariate analyses were performed at 95% CI with P Results Totally 373 cases were recruited. The mean age was 36 (SD 2.9) years (range 10-69 years), and 280 cases (75%) were male. The most affected age group was 21-30 years (n=151, attack rate [AR] 40%), followed by 31-40 years (n=66, AR 23%). Further, 2 deaths were reported (case fatality rate of 0.53%). The most frequent signs or symptoms were fever (n=373, 100%), myalgia and headache (n=320, 86%), and retro-orbital pain (n=272, 73%). Serotype identification was carried out in 322 cases, and DEN-2 was the dominant serotype (n=126, 34%). Contact with a confirmed dengue case (odds ratio [OR] 4.27; 95% CI 3.14-5.81; P Conclusions Stored water in containers inside houses and subsequent mosquito breeding were the most probable causes of this outbreak. Based on the study findings, undertaking activities to improve the use of mosquito repellents and removing sources of breeding (uncovered water stored indoors) are some recommendations for preventing dengue outbreaks.

Background On October 23, 2016, 79 dengue fever cases were reported from the Union Council Tarlai to Federal Disease Surveillance and Response Unit Islamabad. A team was established to investigate the suspected dengue outbreak. Objective The aim of this study was to determine the extent of the outbreak and identify the possible risk factors. Methods Active case finding was performed through a house-to-house survey. A case was defined as an acute onset of fever ≥38℃ in a resident of Tarlai from October 2 to November 11, 2016, with a positive dengue virus (nonstructural protein, NS-1) test and any of the two of following signs and symptoms: retroorbital/ocular pain, headache, rash, myalgia, arthralgia, and hemorrhagic manifestations. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Age- and sex-matched controls (1:1) were identified from residents in the same area as cases. Blood samples were taken and sent to the National Institute of Health for genotype identification. Results During the active case search, 145 cases of dengue fever were identified by surveying 928 houses from October 23 to November 11, 2016. The attack rate (AR) was 17.0/10,000. The mean age was 34.4 (SD 14.4) years. More than half of the cases were male (80/145, 55.2%). Among all cases, 29% belonged to the 25-34 years age group and the highest AR was found in the 35-44 years age group (35.6/10,000), followed by the 55-64 years age group (35.5/10,000). All five blood samples tested positive for NS-1 (genotype DENV-2). The most frequent presenting signs/symptoms were fever and headache (both 100%). Stagnant water around houses (odds ratio [OR] 4.86, 95% CI 2.94-8.01; P Conclusions Stagnant water acting as breeding grounds for vectors was identified as the probable cause of spread of the dengue outbreak. Establishment of surveillance and an early reporting system along with use of protective measures against the vector are strongly recommended.

BackgroundIn the second week of October 2019, five suspected cases of dengue fever were reported from union council Sohan, Islamabad rural (population 45,747) to the health department, Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT). Outbreak investigation was conducted with the objectives to identify risk factors and recommend control measures.MethodsOutbreak investigation was conducted from 17th October to 25th November 2019. A case was defined as, “fever and two or more of the following signs/symptoms; headache, retro-orbital pain, joint/bone pain, myalgia and petechial rash with NS1 test (Nonstructural Protein 1) positive during 8th October to 25th November 2019 among residents of Sohan”. Age and sex-matched controls were recruited from the same neighborhood. All cases were positive for NS1 antigen. Blood samples from five suspected cases were collected and tested for laboratory confirmation.ResultsA total of 547 households were surveyed and 85 cases were identified. The mean age was 34.4 years + 16.05 (range 3-71 years). The attack rate was 0.19% whereas the most affected age group was the 45-54 years (AR 0.43%). Males were predominantly affected (n=48 56.5%). Among all cases, 32% (n=27)) had stagnant water inside or around their houses (aOR 2.65, CI 1.20-5.83, P=0.005), 33% (n=28) were using mosquito repellent (aOR 0.35, CI 0.17-0.70, PP=0.041), and 73% (n=62) used full protective clothing (aOR 0.17, CI 0.05-0.58, PConclusionThe presence of accumulated rainwater in pools and empty receptacles around houses acted as breeding grounds for Aedes aegypti mosquitos and was the most probable cause of this outbreak. Following our recommendations, the health department-initiated mosquito breeding sites control activities through residual insecticide spray and advocacy on the use of protective measures against mosquito bites.

IntroductionSerological surveys are valuable tools to evaluate the extent of disease transmission, measuring preventive effectiveness and proportion of asymptomatic individuals. This age-stratified, serological survey was aimed to measure the COVID-19 distribution and determinants in district Islamabad of Pakistan.MethodologyThree-stage cluster sampling, using population proportionate to size technique, starting with a random number was used. A structured, pretested questionnaire was used after taking informed written consent, to gather demographic, risk factor information.ResultsSeroprevalence was found 16.5% (AR: 16.5%/100,000). The mean age was 35 (±16 Years). The majority were male (64%), self-employed (29%), and had primary level education (33%). The highest seroprevalence was found in the 21-30 years age group (24.8%) while the 41-50 years age group showed the highest attack rate (112.9/100,000 population). The proportion of the population tested that were asymptomatic was 69% (n=711) while the most frequently reported sign/symptom was cough (99%) followed by fever (20%). No known co-morbidity was reported in 86% (n=884) of respondents while hypertension remained the most reported condition (8%). High seroprevalence was observed in urban areas (12.3%) compared to rural union councils (6.4%). Visiting a house where COVID-19 case was isolated (OR 2, CI 1.38-2.84, P< 0.001), history of contact with a known case of COVID-19 (OR 1.42, CI 1.11-1.82, P=0.005), and attending a mass gathering (OR 1.21, CI: 1.02-1.42, p=0.02) were significant risk factors associated with contracting an infection. A Chi-Square test of independence showed significant protection while using regular hand hygiene practices (6.5; pConclusionSeroprevalence gives a direct estimation of population groups exposed to the virus. A remarkable difference in prevalence is found in urban and rural areas, extreme age groups, and socioeconomic statuses, suggesting targeted public health interventions. Sero-studies are affordable counterparts of molecular testing where quick estimation, prevention effectiveness, and data-driven public health policies are priorities.

From April to June 2019, a total of 909 new HIV infections were identified in Larkana, Pakistan; 86% was children younger than 15 years. To identify the possible transmission links in this outbreak, a case-control study was conducted in June 2019.For cases, we selected a systematic random sample of 100 HIV-positive children from the screening list. We chose 2 age-matched and sex-matched controls from the neighborhood of each HIV-positive case. All selected children were tested using the World Health Organization-approved rapid diagnosis test algorithm. We interviewed the parents of each selected child about previous exposures to parenteral treatment and compared exposures of case and control children using conditional logistic regression.The ages of the selected children ranged from 1 month to 10 years. More than 90% of both HIV+ and HIV- children had received outpatient health care from MBBS-qualified private physicians. Eighty-three percent of HIV+ children versus 46% of HIV- children had received health care from one private physician [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 29, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 10 to 79]. Intravenous infusions during the last outpatient visit were reported by 29% of case versus 7% of controls (aOR 57, 95% CI: 2.9 to1000), whereas no case children and 17% of control children had received only intramuscular injections (aOR 0, 95% CI: 0 to 41). Among cases, 94% had been given infusions through a drip set compared with 85% of control children (aOR = 7.7, 95% CI: 2.3 to 26). Infusions had been administered with reused IV drip sets in 70% of cases compared with 8% of controls (aOR = 197, 95% CI: 16 to 2400).Private physicians reusing intravenous drip sets to treat outpatients seen in private practice were responsible for this HIV epidemic. Mapping and regulation of private practitioners were suggested.

In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 as a global pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic has affected various public health functions and essential services in different ways and magnitudes. Although all countries have witnessed the effect of COVID-19, the impact differed based on many factors including the integrity and resiliency of the countries’ health systems. This paper presents opinions and expectations of the authors about the anticipated changes in the future of public health at the global, regional, and national levels. The viewpoint is based on the current efforts and challenges that various stakeholders have carried out to control COVID-19 and the contribution from the literature on the future of public health. Numerous agencies and actors are involved in the fight against COVID-19 with variations in their effectiveness. The public health services showed weaknesses in most of the countries, in addition to the lack of adequate curative medicine settings. The pandemic highlighted the need for better governance and stronger and more resilient health systems and capacities. The COVID-19 experience has also emphasized the importance of coordination and collaboration among the countries and stakeholders. The COVID-19 pandemic might lead to a wide discussion to improve international and national approaches to prepare for and respond to similar events in terms of preparedness and response mechanisms and tools. Public health will not be the same as before COVID-19. New health priorities, approaches, and new agendas will be on the table of the global platforms and initiatives. More investment in research and technology to meet the demand for new vaccines and medicines, innovative methods like distance learning and working, more respect and remuneration to health professionals, and normalization of the public health and social measures that were induced during the COVID-19 pandemic are expected to be seen in future.

Background Hyderabad, Pakistan, was the first city to witness an outbreak of extensively drug resistant (XDR) typhoid fever. The outbreak strain is resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, fluoroquinolones, and third-generation cephalosporin, thus greatly limiting treatment options. However, despite over 5000 documented cases, information on mortality and morbidity has been limited. Objective To address the existing knowledge gap, this study aimed to assess the morbidity and mortality associated with XDR and non-XDR Salmonella serovar Typhi infections in Pakistan. Methods We reviewed the medical records of culture-confirmed typhoid cases in 5 hospitals in Hyderabad from October 1, 2016, to September 30, 2018. We recorded data on age, gender, onset of fever, physical examination, serological and microbiological test results, treatment before and during hospitalization, duration of hospitalization, complications, and deaths. Results A total of 1452 culture-confirmed typhoid cases, including 947 (66%) XDR typhoid cases and 505 (34%) non-XDR typhoid cases, were identified. Overall, ≥1 complications were reported in 360 (38%) patients with XDR typhoid and 89 (18%) patients with non-XDR typhoid (P Conclusions As this first XDR typhoid outbreak continues to spread, the increased duration of illness before hospitalization and increased rate of complications have important implications for clinical care and medical costs and heighten the importance of prevention and control measures.

Background Extensively drug resistant typhoid fever (XDR-TF) has been responsible for an ongoing outbreak in Pakistan, which began in November 2016. Objective This study aimed to determine the risk factors associated with XDR-TF. Methods This age- and sex-matched case-control study was conducted during May-October 2018 in Karachi. All patients with XDR-TF were identified from the laboratory-based surveillance system data. Cases included patients aged Results A total of 75 cases and 75 controls were included in this study. On univariate analysis, the odds of having XDR-TF were 13-fold higher among participants who used piped municipal water than among those who did not (odds ratio [OR] 12.6, 95% CI 4.1-38.6). The use of bore water was significantly associated with XDR-TF (OR 5.1, 95% CI 1.4-19.0). Cases were more likely to report eating French fries with sauce (OR 13.5, 95% CI 3.9-47.0) and poppadum (OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.7-6.7) from street vendors than controls. Boiling water at home was negatively associated with XDR-TF (OR 0.3, 95% CI 0.2-0.7). On multivariate analysis, 2 factors were independently associated with XDR-TF. Using piped municipal water (OR 10.3, 95% CI 3.4-30.4) and eating French fries with sauce from street vendors (OR 8.8, 95% CI 2.1-36.2) were significantly associated with an increased odds of XDR-TF. Conclusions Community water supply and street food eating habits were implicated in the spread of the superbug S typhi outbreak, which continues to grow in Karachi. Therefore, it is recommended to improve the community water supply to meet recommended standards and to develop a policy to improve the safety of street food. In addition, health authorities are required to conduct mass vaccination for TF among high-risk groups.

'Background:' On 1 March, 2018, 15 students of a religious boarding school presented to a tertiary care hospital in Islamabad with complaints of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhea. A team of FELTP fellows were tasked to investigate the suspected outbreak to confirm diagnosis, determine magnitude, evaluate possible risk factors, identify the source and implement control measures. 'Methods:' A retrospective cohort study was conducted from 25 February to 5 March, 2018. Medical records were reviewed at the hospital. All the students and staff of the boarding school were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. A case was defined as any student of the religious school reported with nausea, abdominal discomfort and one of the following symptoms of vomiting, diarrhea, and chills on 1 March, 2018. Information on demographics, history of food intake and clinical features was collected. Suspected food items and drinking water samples were sent to the National Institute of Health for microbiological analysis. Frequencies and attack rates were calculated and risk ratios computed at 95% confidence interval at the margin of error P

BACKGROUND During August 2017, increased numbers of suspected dengue fever cases were reported in the hospitals of Rawalpindi district. A case control study was conducted to determine the risk factors among urban areas, dengue serotype, and recommend preventive measures. OBJECTIVE The objective of the investigation was to determine the risk factors among urban areas, dengue serotype, and recommend preventive measures. METHODS A case was defined as having acute febrile illness with one or more of the following symptoms: retro-orbital pain, headache, rash, myalgia, arthralgia, and hemorrhage. The cases were residents of Rawalpindi and were confirmed for dengue fever from August 30, 2017, to October 30, 2017. All NS1 confirmed cases from urban areas of Rawalpindi were recruited from tertiary care hospitals. Age- and sex-matched controls were selected from the same community with a 1:1 ratio. Frequency, univariate, and multivariate analyses were performed at 95% CI with P RESULTS Totally 373 cases were recruited. The mean age was 36 (SD 2.9) years (range 10-69 years), and 280 cases (75%) were male. The most affected age group was 21-30 years (n=151, attack rate [AR] 40%), followed by 31-40 years (n=66, AR 23%). Further, 2 deaths were reported (case fatality rate of 0.53%). The most frequent signs or symptoms were fever (n=373, 100%), myalgia and headache (n=320, 86%), and retro-orbital pain (n=272, 73%). Serotype identification was carried out in 322 cases, and DEN-2 was the dominant serotype (n=126, 34%). Contact with a confirmed dengue case (odds ratio [OR] 4.27; 95% CI 3.14-5.81; PPPPP CONCLUSIONS Stored water in containers inside houses and subsequent mosquito breeding were the most probable causes of this outbreak. Based on the study findings, undertaking activities to improve the use of mosquito repellents and removing sources of breeding (uncovered water stored indoors) are some recommendations for preventing dengue outbreaks.

BACKGROUND Hyderabad, Pakistan, was the first city to witness an outbreak of extensively drug resistant (XDR) typhoid fever. The outbreak strain is resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, fluoroquinolones, and third-generation cephalosporin, thus greatly limiting treatment options. However, despite over 5000 documented cases, information on mortality and morbidity has been limited. OBJECTIVE To address the existing knowledge gap, this study aimed to assess the morbidity and mortality associated with XDR and non-XDR Salmonella serovar Typhi infections in Pakistan. METHODS We reviewed the medical records of culture-confirmed typhoid cases in 5 hospitals in Hyderabad from October 1, 2016, to September 30, 2018. We recorded data on age, gender, onset of fever, physical examination, serological and microbiological test results, treatment before and during hospitalization, duration of hospitalization, complications, and deaths. RESULTS A total of 1452 culture-confirmed typhoid cases, including 947 (66%) XDR typhoid cases and 505 (34%) non-XDR typhoid cases, were identified. Overall, ≥1 complications were reported in 360 (38%) patients with XDR typhoid and 89 (18%) patients with non-XDR typhoid (PPS Typhi infections and 3 (0.6%) patients with non-XDR S Typhi infections (P=.06). CONCLUSIONS As this first XDR typhoid outbreak continues to spread, the increased duration of illness before hospitalization and increased rate of complications have important implications for clinical care and medical costs and heighten the importance of prevention and control measures.

BACKGROUND On October 23, 2016, 79 dengue fever cases were reported from the Union Council Tarlai to Federal Disease Surveillance and Response Unit Islamabad. A team was established to investigate the suspected dengue outbreak. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to determine the extent of the outbreak and identify the possible risk factors. METHODS Active case finding was performed through a house-to-house survey. A case was defined as an acute onset of fever ≥38℃ in a resident of Tarlai from October 2 to November 11, 2016, with a positive dengue virus (nonstructural protein, NS-1) test and any of the two of following signs and symptoms: retroorbital/ocular pain, headache, rash, myalgia, arthralgia, and hemorrhagic manifestations. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Age- and sex-matched controls (1:1) were identified from residents in the same area as cases. Blood samples were taken and sent to the National Institute of Health for genotype identification. RESULTS During the active case search, 145 cases of dengue fever were identified by surveying 928 houses from October 23 to November 11, 2016. The attack rate (AR) was 17.0/10,000. The mean age was 34.4 (SD 14.4) years. More than half of the cases were male (80/145, 55.2%). Among all cases, 29% belonged to the 25-34 years age group and the highest AR was found in the 35-44 years age group (35.6/10,000), followed by the 55-64 years age group (35.5/10,000). All five blood samples tested positive for NS-1 (genotype DENV-2). The most frequent presenting signs/symptoms were fever and headache (both 100%). Stagnant water around houses (odds ratio [OR] 4.86, 95% CI 2.94-8.01; PPPP=.003), insecticidal spray (OR 0.33, 95% CI 0.22-0.55; PPPP CONCLUSIONS Stagnant water acting as breeding grounds for vectors was identified as the probable cause of spread of the dengue outbreak. Establishment of surveillance and an early reporting system along with use of protective measures against the vector are strongly recommended.

BACKGROUND Extensively drug resistant typhoid fever (XDR-TF) has been responsible for an ongoing outbreak in Pakistan, which began in November 2016. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to determine the risk factors associated with XDR-TF. METHODS This age- and sex-matched case-control study was conducted during May-October 2018 in Karachi. All patients with XDR-TF were identified from the laboratory-based surveillance system data. Cases included patients aged Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi with resistance to chloramphenicol, ampicillin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, fluoroquinolones, and third-generation cephalosporins. Age- and sex-matched controls included children free from the symptoms of TF, aged under 15 years, and residing in Karachi. All controls were recruited from among those who attended outpatient clinics. RESULTS A total of 75 cases and 75 controls were included in this study. On univariate analysis, the odds of having XDR-TF were 13-fold higher among participants who used piped municipal water than among those who did not (odds ratio [OR] 12.6, 95% CI 4.1-38.6). The use of bore water was significantly associated with XDR-TF (OR 5.1, 95% CI 1.4-19.0). Cases were more likely to report eating French fries with sauce (OR 13.5, 95% CI 3.9-47.0) and poppadum (OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.7-6.7) from street vendors than controls. Boiling water at home was negatively associated with XDR-TF (OR 0.3, 95% CI 0.2-0.7). On multivariate analysis, 2 factors were independently associated with XDR-TF. Using piped municipal water (OR 10.3, 95% CI 3.4-30.4) and eating French fries with sauce from street vendors (OR 8.8, 95% CI 2.1-36.2) were significantly associated with an increased odds of XDR-TF. CONCLUSIONS Community water supply and street food eating habits were implicated in the spread of the superbug S typhi outbreak, which continues to grow in Karachi. Therefore, it is recommended to improve the community water supply to meet recommended standards and to develop a policy to improve the safety of street food. In addition, health authorities are required to conduct mass vaccination for TF among high-risk groups.

Background and Objectives: In 2004 Pakistan escalated from ‘low-prevalence’ to ‘concentrated’ phase of HIV epidemic. Despite global decline in HIV incidence since 1997, rate of HIV infections in Pakistan is persistently rising since 1990. Available literature focusses on key populations or localized outbreaks limited by short study duration and regional applicability of results. We studied HIV seroconversion trends over a period of 8 years in a geographically diverse population and evaluated associated risk factors. Methods: A desk review of HIV surveillance data from 2010 to 2017 was carried out at Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. A case was defined as any adult employed in organization ‘X’, initially screened for HIV but later seroconverted on ELISA and western blot. Case-control study was conducted on cases diagnosed in 2017. Age and sex matched controls were identified from same population sub-group. Structured telephonic interviews were conducted and statistical analysis done at 5% margin of error. Results: The annual HIV diagnosis rate remained relatively stable till 2015 (< 40 /100,000/yr) after which it rose sharply to 60/100,000/yr in 2016. Upward trend continued in 2017 to reach 125/100,000/yr (>200% increase from baseline). Acquisition of HIV was significantly associated with commercial sex activities (OR=9; 95%CI: 1.25-395). Conclusion: HIV seroconversion rates among employees of organization X have increased significantly in the past two years. Unlike HIV outbreaks previously reported from Pakistan, sexual route seems to be the predominant mode of transmission. Focus is mandated on prevention of sexual transmission of HIV at national level as well for all vulnerable populations. doi: https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.6.1735 How to cite this:Mansoor E, Azam N, Niazi SK, Sheikh N, Baig MA, Azim MT, et al. Rising HIV seroconversion rates & associated risks among employees of organization ‘X’: A case control study, Pakistan, 2017. Pak J Med Sci. 2020;36(6):1349-1354. doi: https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.6.1735 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Introduction: On 14 February 2018, the District Health Officer of Nasirabad reported 16 suspected measles cases from the nomadic population of Dera Murad Jamali to the disease surveillance and response unit of Quetta and requested an investigation. A FELTP fellow was deputed by the Director of General Health Services, Balochistan to investigate the outbreak, evaluate risk factors and recommend control measures. Methodology: A purposive sampling technique was adopted and a case control study was planned and conducted. Case was defined as “acute onset of generalized maculopapular rash and fever with cough or coryza or conjunctivitis from 29 January to 20 February 2018 in a resident of Dera Murad Jamali”. Active case searches along with interviews were conducted through a semi structured questionnaire. Demographic, socioeconomic, clinical and epidemiological information was collected along with assessment of routine immunization. Five blood samples were sent for serology. Results: A total of 49 cases (AR= 0.17%), including five deaths (CFR=10.2%), were identified. Males, 61% (n=30), were more affected. The median age was three years (age range=1-10 years). The age-group 0-4 years, 69% (n=34), was most affected. The median age group of controls were four years (age range 1-11 years). Of the cases, 71% were unimmunized for any routine antigen while 32% of controls were unimmunized. Pneumonia, 42.8% (n=21), and diarrhea, 38.7% (n=19), were the most common complications. All five samples were positive for measles IgM. Significant statistical association was found between nomadic populations having zero routine doses of measles containing vaccines (MCV1) (OR 2.85; CI 1.83 – 4.42; p value

· COVID-19 pandemic has emerged and spread rapidly across the world · Novel behavior of coronavirus has been seen in Pakistan · Number of COVID-19 cases has been increasing despite many control and preventive measures taken by government of Pakistan · Mathematical models help public health professionals estimate the size of epidemic in near future

IntroductionCOVID-19, a novel disease, appeared in December 2019 in China and rapidly spread across the world. Till second week of April 2020, high incidence (2.9/100,000) and cases fatality rates (1.7%)was observed in Pakistan.This study was conducted to determine temporal and spatial distribution of first 100 deaths attributed to COVID-19 in Pakistan and their associated demographic factors.MethodWe conducted a descriptive epidemiological analysis of first 100 deaths reported among RT-PCR confirmed COVID-19 cases. Demographic, epidemiological and risk factors information was obtained associated comorbidities and clinical signs and symptoms were recorded and frequencies were determined.ResultsA total of 100 mortalities with overall Case Fatality Rate 1.67% (CFR) were analysed. Median age of patients was 64.5 years (IQR: 54–70) with 75% (n = 75) Males. Among all deaths reported, 71 (71%) cases had one or more documented comorbidities at the time of diagnosis. Most frequently reported co-morbidities were; hypertension (67 %), followed by Diabetes Mellitus 945%) and Ischemic Heart Diseases (27%). First death was reported on 18 March 2020 and the most frequent presenting symptoms were shortness of breath (87%) and fever (79%). Median duration of illness was eight days (IQR: 4–11 days), median delay reaching hospital to seek health care was three days (IQR: 0–6 days) while median duration of hospital stay was also three days (IQR: 1–7 days). Among all reported deaths, 62% were attributed to local transmission as these cases had no history of international travel. The most affected age group was 60–69 years while no death reported in age group below 20 years.ConclusionHigh CFR among old age group and its association with co-morbidities (chronic disease) suggests targeted interventions such as social distancing and strict quarantine measure for elderly and morbid people. Comparative studies among deaths and recovered patients are recommended to explore further disease dynamics.

Background: On 13th April 2017, 3 measles cases were reported in Dhok Kazin, Islamabad to National Institute of Health, Islamabad. Federal Disease Surveillance & Response Unit on request of Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT) health administration started disease outbreak investigation and active case finding. The study was aimed to identify risk factors associated with disease outbreak, to assess vaccine coverage and vaccine efficacy in the outbreak area, and to suggest control measures. Methods: To determine possible risk factors age and sex matched case-control study was conducted in April, 2017. A case was defined as "Any resident of Dhok Kazin, presented with fever and maculopapular rash with any of signs/symptoms like coryza, conjunctivitis, cough, otitis media or pneumonia after March 20 to April 30, 2017". For each case 04 matched controls were selected. A structured questionnaire prepared to collect data. Vaccine coverage survey was conducted. Uni and multivariate analyses and vaccine efficacy were calculated. Results: A total of 14 cases identified including 11 cases found on active search. Cases were compared with 57 matched controls. Mean age was 39 months (range 08- 132 months). Among cases male to female ratio observed was 1:2.5. Overall attack rate was 1.2%, while most severely affected age-group was

The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the current COVID-19 a public health emergency of international concern on January 30, 2020. Countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR) have a high vulnerability and variable capacity to respond to outbreaks. Many of these countries addressed the need for increasing capacity in the areas of surveillance and rapid response to public health threats. Moreover, countries addressed the need for communication strategies that direct the public to actions for self- and community protection. This viewpoint article aims to highlight the contribution of the Global Health Development (GHD)/Eastern Mediterranean Public Health Network (EMPHNET) and the EMR’s Field Epidemiology Training Program (FETPs) to prepare for and respond to the current COVID-19 threat. GHD/EMPHNET has the scientific expertise to contribute to elevating the level of country alert and preparedness in the EMR and to provide technical support through health promotion, training and training materials, guidelines, coordination, and communication. The FETPs are currently actively participating in surveillance and screening at the ports of entry, development of communication materials and guidelines, and sharing information to health professionals and the public. However, some countries remain ill-equipped, have poor diagnostic capacity, and are in need of further capacity development in response to public health threats. It is essential that GHD/EMPHNET and FETPs continue building the capacity to respond to COVID-19 and intensify support for preparedness and response to public health emergencies.

UNSTRUCTURED The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the current COVID-19 a public health emergency of international concern on January 30, 2020. Countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR) have a high vulnerability and variable capacity to respond to outbreaks. Many of these countries addressed the need for increasing capacity in the areas of surveillance and rapid response to public health threats. Moreover, countries addressed the need for communication strategies that direct the public to actions for self- and community protection. This viewpoint article aims to highlight the contribution of the Global Health Development (GHD)/Eastern Mediterranean Public Health Network (EMPHNET) and the EMR’s Field Epidemiology Training Program (FETPs) to prepare for and respond to the current COVID-19 threat. GHD/EMPHNET has the scientific expertise to contribute to elevating the level of country alert and preparedness in the EMR and to provide technical support through health promotion, training and training materials, guidelines, coordination, and communication. The FETPs are currently actively participating in surveillance and screening at the ports of entry, development of communication materials and guidelines, and sharing information to health professionals and the public. However, some countries remain ill-equipped, have poor diagnostic capacity, and are in need of further capacity development in response to public health threats. It is essential that GHD/EMPHNET and FETPs continue building the capacity to respond to COVID-19 and intensify support for preparedness and response to public health emergencies.

Background: Measles is highly contagious vaccine preventable disease (VPD), and a major public health problem considered as leading cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries like Pakistan. An outbreak of measles was reported in Sharifabad Islamabad on 15th of April 2017, and an investigation was launched to assess the magnitude of outbreak, evaluate risk factors and recommend control measures. Methods: A comprehensive house to house active case search along with vaccine coverage survey was conducted from April 19-22, 2017. A case was defined as "onset of maculopapular rash with fever in a resident of Sharifabad with at least one of the following signs/ symptoms, Coryza, Conjunctivitis, Cough, Otitis media or Pneumonia present in between 19 March to 22nd April 2017". Four age & sex matched controls were selected from the neighborhood. Data was collected through interview method using structured questionnaire and vaccination coverage was determined by using Epi survey form. Blood samples were sent for laboratory confirmation. Results: A total of eight cases were identified through active case finding while three were reported by local practitioner. Mean age of cases were 20 months (range 8-36 months). Severely affected age-group was 1-2 years with attack rate of 46%. Around two-third (64%) of cases and a few (16%) of controls were unvaccinated against measles. Contact with measles patient [OR 25.2, CI 3.9-160.1, P=0.00], unvaccinated children [OR 9.2 CI 2.12-40.4, P=0.000], social misconception regarding vaccination [OR 7.8 CI 1.42-42.6, P=0.00], and distance from healthcare facility [OR 5.7 CI 1.15-28.35, P=0.02] were significant risk factors. Vaccine efficacy was 90%. Conclusion: Main reasons of the outbreak were contact with the cases, and low vaccination status. We recommended comprehensive measles vaccination and community awareness sessions. On our recommendations district health authority Islamabad carried out mop up of whole area.

Background. Pakistan is a country with one of the highest burden of tuberculosis (TB) in the world, and therefore, it is imperative to revisit the design of behaviour change interventions in the program. This study was designed to understand and assess the knowledge, awareness, perceptions, and health-seeking behaviour of general and specifically TB-affected population and to determine the presence and level of stigma and discrimination toward TB patients. Methods. A mixed-method study was conducted in district Haripur of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, comprising a household survey, whereby 526 individuals were interviewed, and five focus group discussions with various subgroups including TB patients and health workers and authorities. Study sought an ethical approval, and data of all respondents was kept confidential. Results. Quantitative results show that women were more knowledgeable on symptomatology and spread of TB, and with rising education, awareness on TB improves. The majority of our respondents had the understanding that it is a curable disease, yet some would avoid TB patients. Most of the respondents (both men and women) knew that one must go to a government facility for treatment. Only one-third would speak to doctor first, if they suspect TB-like symptoms. Television was a popular source of information on TB. Qualitative results captured people’s perceptions that TB was related with poverty and was still considered a stigma in the community; hence, patients afflicted feared disclosing the disease. Conclusion. With contextual understanding of communities’ knowledge, attitudes, health-seeking behaviour, and care-seeking patterns, it can be concluded that there is a need to increase the awareness about TB symptoms, mode of transmission, prevention, diagnosis and treatment, and destigmatization of the disease through health education.

Introduction: COVID-19, a novel coronavirus disease, appeared in December 2019 in China and rapidly spread across the world. Till second week of April 2020, high incidence (2.9/100,000) and cases fatality rates (1.7%) has been observed. During an epidemic, CFR is considered as an important indicator of disease severity. This study was conducted to estimate the temporal and spatial distribution of first 100 deaths attributed to COVID-19 in Pakistan and to determine the associated demographic factors Method: We conducted an epidemiological analysis of first 100 deaths reported among RT-PCR confirmed COVID-19 cases. Demographic, epidemiological and risk factors information was obtained along with history of travel. The overall case fatality rate was calculated and spatial and temporal trends of CFR were determined. Associated comorbidities and clinical signs and symptoms were recorded and frequencies were determined. Results: A total of 100 mortalities with overall Case Fatality Rate 1.67% (CFR) were analysed. Median age of patients was 64.5 years (IQR: 54-70) with 75% (n=75) Males. Among all deaths reported, 71 (71%) cases had one or more documented comorbidities at the time of diagnosis. Most frequently reported co-morbidities were; hypertension (67 %), followed by Diabetes Mellitus 945%) and Ischemic Heart Diseases (27%). First death was reported on 18 March 2020 and the most frequent presenting symptoms were shortness of breath (87%) and fever (79%). Median duration of illness was eight days (IQR: 4-11 days), median delay reaching hospital to seek health care was three days (IQR: 0-6 days) while median duration of hospital stay was also three days (IQR: 1-7 days). Among all reported deaths, 62% were attributed to local transmission as these cases had no history of international travel. The most affected age group was 60-69 years while no death reported in age group below 20 years. Highest case fatality rate was observed in Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa (KP) province (4.39%) and no deaths reported from Azad Jammu and Kashmir region. Conclusion: High CFR among old age group and its association with co-morbidities (chronic disease) suggests targeted interventions such as social distancing and strict quarantine measure for elderly and morbid people. Comparative studies among deaths and recovered patients are recommended to explore further disease dynamics. Funding Statement: This study was not funded by any organization. Declaration of Interests: Authors declare no competing interests. Ethics Approval Statement: Study was approved by the National Institute of health’s ethical review board and was exempted from written informed consent by the same.

Background Although conventional open haemorrhoidectomy and stapled haemorrhoidectomy are effective procedures, they can lead to significant post-operative pain with risks to continence. Current evidence favours transanal haemorrhoidal dearterialisation (THD) and targeted mucopexy to be an efficacious alternative to conventional modalities. Our aim was to assess the midterm outcomes following THD. Methods Prospective data was collected for patients undergoing day case THD under a single consultant over a 9-year period (March 2009 to February 2018). Data collected included: intra-operative findings, post-operative pain (defined as requirement of analgesia in recovery), post-operative complications and requirement of further procedures. Results Over this time period, 271 patients underwent THD, with 203 (74.9%) patients also undergoing targeted mucopexy for 2nd to 4th degree haemorrhoids. Only 4 (1.5%) patients suffered from post-operative complications, including significant bleeding (n = 1), urinary retention (n = 1) and constipation (n = 2). Post-operative pain was identified in only 10 (3.7%) patients; eight of which had simultaneously undergone an additional procedure (e.g. excision of anal polyps and skin tags). Only 5 (1.8%) patients were identified that required further haemorrhoidal invasive intervention subsequently. Conclusions These results are comparable with national data and demonstrate that THD is a safe procedure for symptomatic haemorrhoids with minimal morbidity.

Following the declaration of eradication of wild poliovirus (WPV) type 2 in September 2015, trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine (tOPV) was withdrawn globally to reduce the risk for type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV2) transmission; all countries implemented a synchronized switch to bivalent OPV (type 1 and 3) in April 2016 (1,2). Any isolation of VDPV2 after the switch is to be treated as a potential public health emergency and might indicate the need for supplementary immunization activities (3,4). On August 9, 2016, VDPV2 was isolated from a sewage sample taken from an environmental surveillance site in Hyderabad, Sindh province, Pakistan. Possible vaccination activities in response to VDPV2 isolation include the use of injectable inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), which poses no risk for vaccine-derived poliovirus transmission. Fractional-dose, intradermal IPV (fIPV), one fifth of the standard intramuscular dose, has been developed to more efficiently manage limited IPV supplies. fIPV has been shown in some studies to be noninferior to full-dose IPV (5,6) and was used successfully in response to a similar detection of a single VDPV2 isolate from sewage in India (7). Injectable fIPV was used for response activities in Hyderabad and three neighboring districts. This report describes the findings of an assessment of preparatory activities and subsequent implementation of the fIPV campaign. Despite achieving high coverage (>80%), several operational challenges were noted. The lessons learned from this campaign could help to guide the planning and implementation of future fIPV vaccination activities.

In Pakistan, absence of a nationwide surveillance mechanism and strategy is the main reason for the failure in effectively controlling communicable diseases. The seasonal outbreaks of various infectious diseases every year call for an integrated surveillance system on a national level for planning effective preventive strategies. Opportunity to adopt a tested and tried model exists at this time in terms of the “Disease Early Warning System” set up by World Health Organization in conflict-affected districts. Replicating this system in other districts is both practical and feasible as technical support is readily available through the World Health Organization. Such a system once put in place has potential to not only decrease morbidity and mortality through early detection and prompt control of outbreaks but also to facilitate effective financial, human resource, and materials management at the district level. This would be a step toward a more responsive health system at the local level.

In this paper, the design of compensated cascaded integrator comb filter (CIC) has been presented using maximally flat (MF) error minimization method for addressing the problem of pass-band droop. The coefficients of the second order and fourth order compensation filters are obtained by applying Maximally Flat conditions. The proposed sixth order CIC compensation filter is the result of cascade of second order and fourth order compensation filters. The proposed compensation filter reduces the pass-band droop of CIC by considerable amount. The comparison has been done with that of the compensation done by the fourth order compensation filter.

In this paper, the design of compensated generalized comb filter (GCF) is presented using maximally flat (MF) minimization technique. The proposed filter’s coefficients are obtained by MF technique. The proposed GCF compensation filter is the cascade of two second order compensation filter with GCF. Simulation result demonstrates that the passband droop of GCF is reduces to a large extent with the proposed filter.