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A clear need exists to understand the role that water table fluctuations play in mobilizing nutrients in soils and shallow groundwater near streams, particularly in dry Mediterranean watersheds, which experience marked wetting and drying seasonal patterns. As groundwater level varies, so does the supply of inorganic nitrogen and organic carbon from different soil layers, which affects processes such as coupled nitrification-denitrification and the chemistry of groundwater that flows to streams. Along discharging groundwater flow paths, carbon-rich soils release dissolved organic carbon (DOC), which biogeochemically reacts with nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) as groundwater levels rise and become saturated. For understanding the biogeochemical dynamics in N at the interface between soils and groundwater, a cylindrical, meter-long polyvinyl chloride (PVC) soil column was constructed and filled with heterogeneous soil and aquifer layers of decreasing organic matter with depth. A cyclical water level cycle was imposed for 16 days using influent to the column from local groundwater at the experimental site with < 1 mg nitrate-N/L. Water table dynamics were monitored with a pressure sensor, tensiometer, and two soil moisture sensors. Vertical arrays of redox sensors and pore water samplers were used to observe changes in pore water chemistry. Water samples were analysed for pH, ammonium-N (NH4-N), nitrate-N (NO3-N), nitrite-N (NO2-N), and DOC. Soil samples were taken for microbial activity and solid chemistry analysis. Near the soil-aquifer transition, nitrate accumulates under aerobic conditions and DOC from organic matter is mobilized under anaerobic conditions. Preliminary pore water analysis shows that during wetting cycles, there is an increase in dissolved inorganic N (NO3+NO2) near the surface (57 mg N/L at 40 cm depth) but a decrease in DIN concentrations in deeper layers (0.92 mg N/L at 55-100 cm depth), suggesting that nitrification and denitrification processes stratified with depth. The results illustrate the significance of groundwater level fluctuations on DIN and DOC cycling and mobilization in Mediterranean riparian soils during wetting events.

Water tables in floodplain aquifers rise and fall over a variety of timescales in response to changes in recharge, discharge, floods, and water use. To investigate the effects of water table fluctuations on DOC delivery to groundwater, an experiment was conducted at two Mediterranean sites: a pristine forested stream and an urban coastal floodplain. Groundwater was pumped into and out of the bottom of the soil column at varying rates to simulate water table fluctuations over a period of 16 days. Flooding events were imitated by inundating the top of the column with water sourced from nearby surface water features. The effects of repeated wetting and drying events on carbon mobilization, DOM quality, and geochemical responses were measured. Preliminary analysis reveals strong downward movement of DOC from soil layers after wetting events. SUVA at 254 nm increased with DOC concentrations compounds within pore waters during wetting events. During initial water table fluctuations, redox potential near the soil-aquifer interface was relatively stable but declined after subsequent wettings. Forthcoming analyses will also examine changes in the humification, fluorescence, and freshness indices of DOM from excitation-emission matrices. This study shows the influence of multiple saturation events on carbon mobilization and shallow groundwater biogeochemistry in unique floodplains.

Water tables in coastal aquifers respond to a variety of hydrologic forcings, including precipitation, coastal flooding, and tides. The water table response to these forcings has the potential to impact water quality by affecting the fate and transport of nitrogen, particularly in coastal environments where nitrogen can accumulate in soils and water. To investigate the urban and agricultural reactions involving N that occur near the water table, a meter-long column containing reconstructed coastal soil and aquifer layers from a Mediterranean site was made. We continuously monitored in-situ redox potential, soil moisture, and water pressure and collected frequent pore water samples for analysis of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved inorganic nitrogen species over 16 days while imposing water table fluctuations by injecting local groundwater rich in nitrate-N (~15 mg/L). In-situ redox potential in shallow soils (40 cm depth) ranged from -600-600 mV, which is indicative of alternating conditions favorable for aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Redox potential increased upon saturation and declined again as soils drained, with more subtle changes occurring during the first wetting and drying cycle and greater changes occurring during repeated cycles. Pore water analysis shows mobilization of DOC and ammonium-N in shallow soils and removal of nitrate-N in sandy aquifer layers. More specifically, DOC, nitrate-N, ammonium-N, and nitrite-N were greatest in the organic soils and decreased down the column into the sandy aquifer layers. Toward the end of the experiment, the column was inundated with seawater collected from the Mediterranean to simulate a flooding event, causing an increase in all N-species concentrations below 10 cm as seawater transported the nitrogen and DOC contaminants to depth. In contrast, when the column was flooded from the bottom, nitrate-N concentrations decreased as the soils became saturated, oxygen was depleted, and denitrification occurred. Overall, we see how water table dynamics impact the fate and transport of nitrogen in groundwater as soils are repeatedly saturated from above and below.

Hydro-technologies, and especially the need for developing drinking water treatments, have been known since the ancient times. Water supply treatment devices were developed even during prehistoric times but were especially improved during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Nevertheless, after several centuries, particularly during the last two, intensive and effective efforts have been made all over the world to obtain sufficient amounts of water with the necessary quality to improve the quality of life and health of humankind. As a result, life expectancy has globally increased at unprecedented rates, especially in the developed world. This paper represents an effort to study the relationship between water history, the development of water-related technologies, and the health and quality of ecosystems, especially those affecting human beings. Thus, it should be pointed out that: The history of water is equivalent to the history of the world, and the history of water quality is equivalent to the history of quality of life (Andreas N. Angelakis).

Nowadays, water is a scarce resource, hence, water management is crucial as demand for agricultural, urban, and industrial purposes increases. The use of reclaimed water in agriculture can be a suitable solution. However, pathogens and chemical contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) present in reclaimed water can accumulate in the soil and ultimately, in the crop. To evaluate the potential transfer of biological and chemical pollutants from water to crop, two plots were designed for the cultivation of lettuce under field conditions. In this study, the influence of water quality, soil composition, and irrigation system on plant uptake of CECs and pathogens was assessed. The applied reclamation process reduced total suspended solids, E. coli (3-5 ulog), sulfite-reducing clostridia spores (1 ulog), Helminth eggs, and Legionella spp levels (complete removal) in water. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and electric conductivity (EC) in the soils irrigated with reclaimed water were lower, and E. Coli was not detected. In lettuces, E. coli was only present in the crops irrigated with wastewater. Pharmaceuticals were the most frequently detected CECs in soils and waters, whereas UV filters achieved the highest concentrations. Diclofenac and salicylic acid were the most accumulated in soils, and diclofenac, ofloxacin, and benzophenone-4 were the most prevalent in the WWTP effluent. The irrigation water quality was the factor driving the transfer of CECs to the crops. Results show that the best combination to reduce pathogens and CECs was the use of reclaimed water, soils with high content of clay, and a sprinkling irrigation system., This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (Project ROUSSEAU CTM2017–89767-C3–1-R and Project CEX2018–000794-S). The authors are also grateful to Project MARADENTRO (PCI2019–103603) and Consorci d′Aigües Costa Brava Girona (CACBG) for the access to the facility and treated water supply, to the staff of the WWTP for their help, and BEKOlut®, for the provision of the QuEChERS kits.

Nowadays, the reuse of built agricultural/industrial heritage has been a common practice worldwide. These structures represent excellent symbols of the great agricultural/industrial past. These agricultural/hydro-technologies also serve as monuments of socio-cultural identities, especially in rural areas and on small farms. One example of a successful application of agricultural technologies for small farms is the water mill. By harnessing the water energy, they were used for traditional flour and other goods production (e.g., olive oil) and works requiring energy, with the main role in the evolution of the traditional/cultural landscape. Water mills have been used to drive a mechanical process of milling, hammering, and rolling and are a portion of the agricultural, cultural, and industrial heritage. For approximately two millennia, the vertical mill water wheel prepared the initial source of mechanical power in many regions of the world. Water mills were the first device that converted natural resources of energy into mechanical energy in order to operate some form of machinery. The preservation/management of water mills is challenging due to their long-term abandonment and the lack of information/knowledge about their value. The other obstacles that are faced in their retrofitting and/or preservation are the lack of sufficient economic incentives and complex authorizations/legislations. Sustainability and regeneration of water mills through the centuries are then reviewed for history and agricultural/industrial “archaeology”. The history of water-powered mills in prehistoric and historic times, including ancient Persia/Iran, ancient China, ancient India, the Islamic world, Venetian Crete, medieval Europe, America, and finally present times, is discussed. The outcome of this review allows the understanding of the importance of conservation, optimization, and development of water mills. It will help to know more and achieve sustainable/regenerative development for small farms with respect to water and energy crises at present and in the future.

An underground aqueduct is usually a canal built in the subsurface to transfer water from a starting point to a distant location. Systems of underground aqueducts have been applied by ancient civilizations to manage different aspects of water supply. This research reviews underground aqueducts from the prehistoric period to modern times to assess the potential of achieving sustainable development of water distribution in the sectors of agriculture and urban management, and provides valuable insights into various types of ancient underground systems and tunnels. The review illustrates how these old structures are a testament of ancient people’s ability to manage water resources using sustainable tools such as aqueducts, where the functionality works by using, besides gravity, only “natural” engineering tools like inverted siphons. The study sheds new light on human’s capability to collect and use water in the past. In addition, it critically analyzes numerous examples of ancient/historic/pre-industrial underground water supply systems that appear to have remained sustainable up until recent times. The sustainability of several underground structures is examined, correlated to their sound construction and regular maintenance. Moreover, several lessons can be learned from the analysis of ancient hydraulic works, particularly now, as many periodically hydrologic crises have occurred recently, overwhelmingly impacted by climate change and/or over-exploitation and degradation of available water resources.

In Europe, there is a great variety of climates that, together with socio-economic aspects of each country, lead to a marked difference in the availability of water resources among the Member States (MS), where some are affected by water stress conditions. For this reason, some MS and regions of Europe have been issuing specific legislation on the use of reclaimed water, especially for agricultural use. Nevertheless, the lack of common criteria can affect the commercialization in the Common Market of products irrigated with reclaimed water. In this context, the European Union has finally decided to unify the criteria on the minimum requirements for water reuse by issuing a Regulation. In these circumstances, the future of reuse in Europe can evolve in several directions, which will be discussed using four scenarios. The first scenario is the approach to reuse for agriculture, the only use supported at present by the EU regulation. In the second reclaimed water is not limited to agricultural uses but includes a certain number of reuse possibilities. In the third scenario, there is a complete rejection of the reuse concept by a number of Member States and stakeholders, and in the fourth, a complete support to the practice by backing any initiative in this direction and with the availability of funds to support further research is supposed.

To implement tariffs and regulations on sanitation and wastewater treatment, as well as for disposal or reuse of treated effluents, it is necessary to know the treatment technologies, which one would be best adapted to the present circumstances of any site and finally if the treated wastewater can be disposed of, legally or reused complying the rules and regulations, in a safe way. Wastewater treatment has been evolving at different pace along the history, according to the increasing concentration of people in towns and cities. With the increasing pressures on water resources, concerns on how to find new resources capable to help reaching equilibrium within demand and offer arise. In this context, one of the main possibilities to cope with water scarcity is wastewater reclamation and reuse. The main features of wastewater treatment and several of the characteristics of reclamation and reuse are developed in this chapter.

Water quality criteria are an indispensable part of water reuse projects aiming to ensure the protection of public health and the environment. In addition, criteria can affect the development, public acceptance, and economic viability of water reuse projects. Currently no uniform criteria exist, but they diverge, often greatly, between countries and states. The authors briefly present the evolution of reuse criteria worldwide and discuss emerging issues related to ecological and public health risks that have not addressed adequately in existing criteria. They specifically focus on European Union (EU) countries and present their water reuse status based on the published data and the existing (or nonexisting) reuse frameworks. Data gathered from public agencies reveal a high potential for water reuse in the EU that could potentially contribute to ensuring that fresh water is available for all sectors and to protect the environment, but it has not expanded at the expected rates. The lack of water reuse crite...

Oasis and the small town of Figuig are located in the far south-east at the Oriental region of Morocco near the Algerian border. In this desert area, water resources are limited and collective sanitation is not fully applied. Water used is obtained from wells, scarce and temporary surface sources and mines (foggaras). The main irrigation technique is border irrigation, but drip systems are also being introduced. A dam is being built at some distance from the village and the possibility of reusing treated wastewater after the implementation of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is being considered. Over the last years, cultivated land increased due to new wells mainly built without any control. This situation has lead to an overexploitation of the aquifer and soil salinisation. Only one neighbourhood has a complete sanitation system with sewerage and a WWTP using a series of stabilisation ponds (WSP) built in 1998 with the aim of treating the wastewater and subsequently reuse it for agricultural i...

A great agricultural development took place in the Llobregat river delta, near Barcelona, during the 19th century in order to fulfil the demand of the growing town and even to export vegetables and fruits to the north of Europe. This demand favoured the transformation of dry land agriculture into irrigated one through the construction of infrastructures for water distribution. In the lower part of the Llobregat river, a canal for supplying water to agricultural fields was built supported by the authorities and landowners. The Infanta Luisa Carlota de Borbon Canal (Infanta Canal) was 17 km long with several complementary minor canals and distribution facilities to irrigate around 3,000 hectares which allowed at least three crops per year. Apart from irrigation and industrial uses, this system was used to generate electricity. Over the years, agriculture disappeared from the area due to industrialisation and urban growth and the canal was partially transformed into a sewer. Its trace has been lost near the Mediterranean Sea, although there are still some remnants. Nowadays, several teams are trying to describe and recover this historical facility.

Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is increasingly being used for water recycling via aquifers and recovery for irrigation. Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) was used to assess the human health risks from irrigation using reclaimed water and to evaluate the reduction in risk where MAR is used for irrigation management. Four MAR sites (Shafdan, Israel: Nardo, Italy: Bolivar, Australia; and Sabadell. Spain) that use reclaimed water for crop and/or park irrigation were evaluated, and the risk to human health was quantified in terms of DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years). The results indicated that median risks for all scenarios and pathogens evaluated were acceptable (

This article evaluates the economics of alternative water-allocation strategies involving farmers and urban water users, while also presenting a cost–benefit analysis framework for water reuse and exchange projects at the basin level. Case studies from Spain and Mexico show that such projects at the basin level can be economically efficient and financially feasible.

Cost–benefit studies on replacing conventional agricultural water resources with reclaimed water in favour of cities are still rare. Some results of a study under auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) are presented. By means of an illustrative example at Lobregat River basin in Spain, it could be proved that reclaimed water reuse and intersectoral water transfer can result in economic and environmental benefits at the watershed level. The agricultural community faces cost savings in water pumping and fertilising, increases in yields and incomes; the municipality benefits from additional water resources released by farmers. Farmers should be encouraged to participate by implementing adequate economic incentives. Charging farmers with the full cost of water reclamation may discourage farmers from joining water exchange projects. Particularly in regions with water scarcity, investments in reclaimed water reuse and water exchange arrangements usually pay back and are profitable in the long term.

Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is becoming an attractive option for water storage in water reuse processes as it provides an additional treatment barrier to improve recharged water quality and buffers seasonal variations of water supply and demand. To achieve a better understanding about the level of pathogenic microorganisms and their relation with microbial indicators in these systems, five waterborne pathogens and four microbial indicators were monitored over one year in three European MAR sites operated with reclaimed wastewater. Giardia and Cryptosporidium (oo)cysts were found in 63.2 and 36.7% of the samples respectively. Salmonella spp. and helminth eggs were more rarely detected (16.3% and 12.5% of the samples respectively) and Campylobacter cells were only found in 2% of samples. At the Belgian site advanced tertiary treatment technology prior to soil aquifer treatment (SAT) produced effluent of drinking water quality, with no presence of the analysed pathogens. At the Spanish and Italian sites amelioration of microbiological water quality was observed between the MAR injectant and the recovered water. In particular Giardia levels decreased from 0.24-6.14 cysts/L to 0-0.01 cysts/L and from 0.4-6.2 cysts/L to 0-0.07 cysts/L in the Spanish and Italian sites respectively. Salmonella gene copies and Giardia cysts were however found in the water for final use and/or the recovered groundwater water at the two sites. Significant positive Spearman correlations (p

Surfactants are included in different detergent formulations and are one of the most ubiquitous and important families of organic compounds. Although the generic term applies to a great number of products, 80% of their demand is covered by only ten types of compounds. The global surfactant market volume size is more than 18 million tons per year. Large quantities of surfactants are continuously released into the environment, where they can or cannot be degraded depending on their structure. The alkylbenzenesulphonate (LAS) is the most widely used surfactant. LAS can be degraded under aerobic conditions but is persistent in the environment under anaerobic conditions. Surfactants may enter the terrestrial environment through several routes, with the use of sewage sludge as fertiliser on agricultural land being by far the most important. High concentrations of surfactants and their degradation products may affect the biota. On the other hand, due to their amphiphilic nature, surfactants may interact both with inorganic as well as organic contaminants affecting their bioavailability.

Although known for nearly a century in its modern version, wastewater reuse is not widely applied in the European countries where water is a scarce resource, i.e. the Mediterranean ones. There are several reasons for this lack of success, namely: a) the lack of full knowledge on the hazards associated to the practice; b) the lack of application of the precautionary principle by the water administration all over Europe; c) difficulties in the assessment of reclaimed real quality in real time; d) difficulties in the implementation of scientific methodologies for the needed epidemiological studies; e) bad management of the social aspects related to the practice; e.g. acceptability, marketing; f) a never-ending discussion among scientists on the acceptable level of the standards to be applied; g) a real lack of accepted planning procedures for establishing reclamation and reuse in specific sites. Considering the issues mentioned, it is to indicate that the practical implementation of reclamation, recycling and reuse needs a pro-active policy from the interested stakeholders, devoted mainly to gain knowledge on the benefits of the practice, without forgetting its derived hazards and risks. The present activities in the field of reuse in the Mediterranean basin are based on gaining wider knowledge on the reuse possibilities and in the preparation and adaptation of environmentally-related tools, like life-cycle analysis (LCA), decision support systems (DSS), good reuse practices (GRP), impact assessment (IA) and hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP). Several of them are complementary or comprehensive, but were developed for other purposes and are being adapted to reclamation (as an industrial process) and reuse (as a practice, where e.g. agriculture, health and environmental sciences merge).

The decision on technologies used for reclaiming wastewater appears as important as a consequence of the implications on the economic, environmental and health conditions of societies. The problem arises when deciding how to deal with wastewater in small communities, because the costs of implementing and operating small, intensive wastewater treatment plants are unacceptable and can lead to financing and operation problems. Extensive treatment systems can be a good solution, where space is available. This paper presents the combination of two soft technologies (infiltration–percolation and constructed wetlands) to treat and reclaim wastewater. The obtained results show that the infiltration–percolation effluent presents a quality enough to be reused for irrigation of industrial crops, nurseries, fodder, cereals and oleaginous seeds, ornamental flower production; industrial cooling; impoundments, water bodies, and streams for recreational use in which the public's contact with the water is not permitted; and irrigation of forested areas, landscape areas and restricted access areas. Moreover, the combination of infiltration–percolation and constructed wetlands increases the list of final reclamation to the following: irrigation of pasture for milk or meat animals, crops for canning industry, crops not raw-consumed, fruit trees except by sprinkling, aquaculture; and aquifer recharge by localised percolation through the soil.

The history and water-related features in the Poblet Cistercian Monastery, located in Tarragona province, Spain are described. The study is undertaken with the main purpose of obtaining data for the establishment of an integrated water management system inside the walls of the abbey, which is suffering water scarcity due to increasing demands and the prevalent semiarid conditions.

The relationship between golf courses, forced ecosystems and the environment is extremely complex and need to be established carefully because of the social pressures and implications of this type of facilities. The main environmental aspects of golf courses, the way the golf structures exert an influence on the environment, the management practices and the use of pesticides are the main features to be considered. The soil-plant-atmosphere continuum is at the core of the golf and must be managed in an integrated way to reduce environmental impacts of the whole facility. Many golf courses are located in natural areas, where wildlife exists and there is an influence on the course and vice versa. There is also the need to define the relationships between a course and its surrounding environments.

Water, soil, and turfgrass are the key elements in the environmental management of golf courses. All of them must be combined to create a modified ecosystem meeting the needs of the golf player. For several reasons, golf courses and golf itself are suffering from a misunderstanding and lack of a positive image in several European countries. Thus, the correct management and the wise use of natural resources, land, and water are nowadays paramount for the golf world. There are arguments about the amount of water used for golf course irrigation on the grounds of excess water resources employed, competition with other water uses, and the attitude of part of the public that considers golf as a sumptuary activity. Soil is also considered as a resource because golf courses use considerable amounts of land, for a limited amount of people, during the year. A discussion arises on whether land is modified in an irreversible way or not. Many times, the debate is not centred on the green areas, but on the built areas surrounding courses. Plants are the third element in a golf course, no less important, and the discussion in this case derives from the use of allochthonous species, usually consuming more water than the autochthonous ones.

Groundwater is increasingly being used for water supply; however, the present social demand is not only to detect new groundwater resources but also to protect them. Moreover, reclaimed water is also a valued non-conventional resource. Both statements are especially true in arid and semi-arid areas where water is scarce, but also in the Mediterranean countries because of the wide rainfall irregularity. When trying to perform an integrated management of water resources, groundwater volumes can be increased by reusing reclaimed water for recharge. Surface spreading is the simplest, oldest, and most widely applied method of artificial recharge. Wherever it goes, water remains in some part of the hydrologic cycle, but what is really desired when discharging or reusing wastewater is to prevent the effluent — or more correctly, the pollutants it contains — from causing water quality and public health concerns. When recharging with reclaimed effluents, to ensure an effective percolation through the soil and an adequate treatment of the effluent, the structure and properties of the vadose zone must be understood in detail. One of the easiest and cost-effective techniques for producing a large amount of information on aquifer geometry and subsoil properties is the electrical imaging technique. The underlying objective was to test the advantage of using this geophysical method for the continuous characterization of subsoil structure around the Begur treatment plant where treated wastewater is discharged and reused in a soil–plant–aquifer system. The good results of wastewater application in the area are also discussed.

The identification of adequate treatment for small communities is a complex problem since it makes it necessary to combine aspects of the community and landscape, the receiving environment, and the available wastewater treatment technologies. This paper presents the development and implementation of a Knowledge-Based Decision Support System (KB-DSS) to tackle this problem. Different knowledge sources have been consulted in order to make up a comprehensive and accurate knowledge base. The core of the KB-DSS embraces two objectives. The first one is to assist in the selection of the treatment level adequate to fulfil the target quality standards for the receiving environment. The second one is to select the specific type of treatment. The KB-DSS is being applied to each one of the 3,482 different small communities comprised in the Small Communities Wastewater Treatment Plan of Catalonia, grouped according to river catchments. This paper also summarizes the different steps involved in the operation of the knowledge-based DSS when solving a real case study.

In this report we describe the results of astudy conducted to better estimate airbornemicroorganisms present in wastewater treatmentplants (WWTP) environments. Air samples weretaken with the Air Sampler MAS 100 impactor(Merck) at each stage of an activated-sludgeWWTP (pre-treatment, primary clarifiers,aeration basins and sludge processors), inorder to determine levels of contaminationaccording to work stations. Culture methodswere used to investigate heterotrophic platecount, moulds and yeasts, total and fecalcoliforms, Pseudomonas aeruginosa andspecies belonging to Mycobacteriumtuberculosis complex, whereas these lastmicroorganisms were also analysed by PolymeraseChain Reaction (PCR) methods. Statisticalanalysis showed that pretreatment and primaryclarifiers were the stages with the highestemission of bioaerosols, and that bioaerosolconcentration at each stage depended on windspeed and daily inflow at the WWTP. Lowconcentrations of P. aeruginosa werefound isolated at pretreatment and primaryclarifiers; however, species of M.tuberculosis complex were not detected at anystage of the treatment plant.

Several lines of reclamation has been tested in the Palamós/Vall-Llobrega, Spain wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Each line consists on a filtration treatment and a disinfection system. Different lines have been tested in order to establish the fate of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during wastewater treatment and reclamation procedures. The studied technologies after a classical activated sludge treatment were infiltration-percolation, ring filtration, sand filtration, and coagulation-floculation plus sand filtration. Analysis of VOCs were performed at the different stages of the treatment by closed loop stripping analysis (CLSA) method which is able to determine compounds at trace levels (ng/L) and covers a wide range of organic pollutants. The CLSA extracts were further analyzed by GC/MS. Organic compounds such as tert-butyl alcohols and ketones, musks; iso-propyl fatty acids, and other minor components were regularly identified in the influent. Removal of all pollutants was partially achieved by all methodologies tested except the musk compounds which proved to be recalcitrant in all cases but one. The sole metodology that exhibited a total elimination of all organic compounds identified in the effluent including musks was infiltration-percolation.

Wastewater recycling and reuse guidelines and/or regulations have been traditionally and exclusively based on the determination of bacterial indicators and nematode eggs presence. Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that: (a) virus presence is not well established by bacterial indicators, (b) the viability of nematode eggs is not determined, (c) parasites' presence is not analysed, (d) behaviour of all pathogens once in the recycled water distribution systems and points of use is not known, (e) behaviour of pathogens in the environment is also not known, and (f) chemical risk is not assessed. Additionally, it is to consider that risk associated with reuse is directly related to the final contact host-pathogen, or to chemicals ingestion and contact with the human body. Consequently, future developments of laws, rules and regulations for wastewater recycling and reuse need to include: (a) more detailed biological and chemical analysis of recycled water and environment, (b) the development of tools for determining environmental impact of recycled water and by-products of recycling, (c) the establishment of tools guaranteeing a reduction of the host-pathogen contact, and (d) risk assessment and management mechanisms. Suggestions and recommendations are made on how to include all this items in the future legislative developments for wastewater recycling and reuse.

The contents of FC, somatic coliphages and F-specific bacteriophages were measured in the stabilization pond and stabilization reservoir system of the City of Arad (Israel) in order to determine the efficiency of the treatment process regarding the microorganisms removal. Monitoring was conducted close to one year. Physical and chemical parameters (temperature, pH, BOD5, COD, SS) were also analyzed with the aim of finding factors that affect the microorganisms removal. The field results prove a very good performance of this treatment system. FC, somatic coliphages and F-specific bacteriophages were removed between 4.16 and 5.76 log units, during winter and in between 6.02 and 6.47 log units during summer. The microbial quality of the final effluent complies with the WHO guidelines for unrestricted irrigation. The results also indicate that retention time and temperature seem to be the most important factors for microorganisms removal. F-specific bacteriophages were removed at higher rates than FC and somatic coliphages. Consequently, it is suggested that F-specific bacteriophages might be less adequate viral indicators for this treatment system.

The DRAC, (“Desinfecció i Reutilització d'Agües Residuals a Catalunya”, Wastewater disinfection and reuse in Catalonia - Spain), project is included in a RDD (Research, Development, and Demonstration) program. The project arises from the necessity to define reclamation treatments guaranteeing an effluent with enough quality to be reused with a minimal microbiological risk. This paper presents the first results obtained from the combination of a physical-chemical pilot and two disinfection pilot systems: ozone and chlorine dioxide. The combination of physical-chemical and disinfection systems allows the use of lower doses of disinfectants, thus minimising the negative impacts of the whole process and improving the reliability of the reclamation facilities.

An important factor in the restoration studies of quarries and open-cast mines is the ability of generating final restored models of visualisation. These 3-D models are particularly useful for presenting projects, as they can greatly enhance the analysis of different alternatives. A method involving several subroutines for simulation purposes is presented in this paper. The system allows for the simulation of a variety of geological structures, both real and restored. The subroutines facilitate: (1) the automatic integration between the restoration structure and its geotechnical and morphological parameters, (2) the achievement of a uniform slope, and (3) the adjustment of the talus of the restoration structure to the relief. Graphic output in DXF and VRML formats allows for both static and dynamic optimal visualisation. Readers interested in subroutines written in Visual Basic can contact the first author: victor@geo.ub.es.

Reuse of treated wastewater is a favourable direction for solving water shortage problems and meeting environmental quality criteria. Domestic wastewater in isolated communities in arid regions can be treated efficiently in a stabilization pond system. The effluent quality can be further improved when stored in a series of stabilization reservoirs. However the salinity of the wastes in the ponds will increase due to evaporation. There is a series of parameters that characterize the effluent quality for agricultural reuse. The conventional biological parameters include faecal coliforms as a microbial indicator. The use of faecal coliforms does not reflect the viral pollution of the effluent due to the poor correlation with virus occurrence. Therefore, phages are proposed as enteric virus pollution indicators. Phages exhibit similar behaviour and survival in an aquatic environment, and their quantitative assessment is easy and a reliable enteric virus measure. Field results from the treatment plant of the City of Arad (Israel) reveal the possibility of characterizing the effluent quality in stabilization ponds and additional reservoir systems. The field data also allows the type of reactor of which the system consists to be defined, and the kinetic expressions for further forecasting of the treatment system behaviour and removal rate of the pathogens.

One of the most important environmental impacts resulting from opencast mining, and especially quarries, is the visual impact. Evaluation of this impact considers two aspects: first, the area occupied by the quarry as seen by an observer from a specific place, and, second, the chromatic contrast existing between landscape and exploitation. In this study we develop a methodology to assess the chromatic impact in an objective and comparable form. To assess this impact we developed a method based on image analysis that allows us to obtain from a picture or image its equivalent as a function of chromatic impact, according to the sensibility of the human eye to different wavelengths. The methodology was applied to the Martinenca limestone quarry (Alcanar, Tarragona) and to Cerro Kori Kollo mine, La Joya district (Bolivia).

Recycling water is an important aspect of water resource and environment management policies, ensuring reliable alternative water resources, reducing environmental pollution and achieving a more sustainable form of development. This paper focuses on wastewater reuse as a strategy for integrated water management. Key economic, financial, regulatory, social and technical factors that help to make water reuse projects successful are reviewed. Selected examples from Northern and Western Europe and arid and semi-arid Mediterranean regions illustrate the contribution of wastewater reuse to integrated management of water resources.

The health related risk of wastewater reclamation and reuse is usually defined by laws, rules or regulations by using only biological tools; i.e. bacteria, viruses, or other pathogens or indicators determination. Those determinations exert some influence in the costs of the mentioned practices, and it seems probable that in the near future more determinations will be required. Nevertheless, a total indication of wastewater biological quality is not given by such organisms; in fact, long-term toxicity is not detected by such means. The future of biological control of reclamation and reuse systems and the price associated to such determinations is examined through a practical application case.

Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) are one of the most appropriate wastewater treatment methods to reduce nematode and faecal coliforms. However, there is still a risk of contamination of crops and soil irrigated with this kind of effluent. The purpose of this work was to examine the fate of microorganisms (faecal coliforms, F+, and somatic coliphages and helminth eggs), from WSP effluent used for irrigation of a vineyard orchard, under onsurface (ODI) and subsurface drip (SDI) systems. The field is located near the City of Arad (Israel). The soil and water samples were taken during the irrigation periods of two consecutive years (1997 and1998). During the first year the vineyard was irrigated with a low quality effluent from WSP (sedimentation and maturation ponds only) and during the second year a high quality effluent (sedimentation, anaerobic, and a series of aerobic ponds and a final reservoir) was used. The results showed a substantial elimination of microorganisms in the soil, decreasing negative impacts, and minimising environmental and health risks.

Municipal wastewater reuse, reclamation and recycling are essential to the development of sound water and environment management policies. In arid and semi-arid regions, wastewater reuse is a vital component of their development ensuring alternative water resources, sustainability, reduction of the environmental pollution and health protection. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the role of wastewater reuse in thedevelopment of new integrated resource management strategy in Europe and the Middle East.

A critical objective for any wastewater reuse programme is to minimise health and environmental hazard. When applying wastewater to soil–plant systems, it is to be noted that the passage of water through the soil considerably reduces the number of microorganisms carried by the reclaimed wastewater. Factors that affect survival include number and type of microorganisms, soil organic matter content, temperature, moisture, pH, rainfall, sunlight, protection provided by foliage and antagonism by soil microflora. The purpose of this work was to examine the behaviour of fecal pollution indicators in a soil irrigated with treated wastewater under onsurface and subsurface drip irrigation. The experiment was conducted in a vineyard located at a commercial farm near the City of Arad (Israel). Wastewater and soil samples were monitored during the irrigation period and examined for fecal coliforms, somatic and F+ coliphages and helminth eggs. Physico-chemical parameters were controlled in order to determine their relationship with removal of microorganisms. The results showed high reduction of the concentration of microorganisms when wastewater moves through the soil; and a good correlation between the reduction of fecal pollution indicators and moisture content, organic matter concentration and pH. The application of secondary treated domestic wastewater in this specific soil and under these irrigation systems affect the survival of microorganisms, thus reducing the health and environmental risk.

The necessity for water and the risks associated with inadequate sewage treatment have stimulated attempts to reuse domestic wastewater for diverse purposes, primarily for agricultural irrigation. This strategy has now become practical. The use of wastewater in small communities depends on a series of factors, such as community size, socio-economic aspects, relative location to other communities, and land availability for effluent reuse. Two main types of small and isolated communities can be identified. One has limited water supply and land resources, and its' main problems are associated with wastewater treatment and disposal. The second has enough land for effluent reuse, but lacks the additional amounts needed for cultivation. The extra amounts of effluent can be obtained from an adjacent municipality of the first type which, for its part, needs to solve wastewater disposal problems.

Controversy regarding the amount of water consumed or saved as a result of human activity is currently paramount in water-scarce areas. In recent decades, golf—a land and water consuming activity—has been implanted in several areas of the Mediterranean basin, where the scarcity of water resources is well-known. As a result, the use of conventional water resources for golf course irrigation is increasingly contested and its replacement by reclaimed water has become essential. This paper examines the wide range of issues involved in its use on golf courses, including hazards—due to the presence of microorganisms and pollutants—and the corresponding risks that can appear. The resulting biological, chemical and physical water quality concerns are analyzed. Legal aspects related to the use of reclaimed water are also discussed and good reuse practices are suggested, including a detailed examination of risk assessment procedures and tools through observation or chemical, physical and microbiological analysis. The HACCP system—which focuses on quality determination in water samples from relevant control points—is described in detail, as it is generally accepted as one of the most scientific ways to detect health problems on a golf course. The paper concludes that, given the increasing availability of treated and reclaimed water and the water needs of golf courses, the future development of the sport in areas without surplus water resources—such as the Mediterranean basin—will predictably depend upon the use of reclaimed water. In recent years, risk assessment or analysis has emerged as an essential tool to guarantee the application of reclaimed water at an acceptable risk level. There certainly have been considerable advances and improvements in the tools that guarantee the safe use of reclaimed water, although current methods available require simplification for their practical application. Nevertheless, protocols applied at present seem to be adequate in order to address the key issue of enhancing the development of reclaimed water use on golf courses.

International audience; With the aim of improving the quality of the effluent from a waste stabilization pond (WSP) different types of vertical-flow constructed wetlands (VFCWs) and intermittent sand filters (ISFs) were tested at a pilot plant in Aurignac (France). The effectiveness of each design at upgrading the pond effluent was studied over a period of 2 years. Physicochemical parameters were monitored by taking composite samples over 24 h and grab samples every week. The hydraulic behaviour of the filters was studied using (NaCl) tracer tests and monitoring the infiltration rate. This paper describes the influence on the performance of the beds of: (a) the characteristics of the medium (type of sand, depth, and presence of Phragmites); (b) feed modes; and (c) the presence of an algae clogging layer. The study demonstrates the viability of VFCWs and ISFs as means of upgrading effluent from WSPs. For hydraulic loads (HL) of up to 80 cm/day, both technologies effectively retain algae, complete organic matter degradation, and nitrify the pond effluent. The presence of plants did not significantly affect the performance of the filters although it was important in terms of maintenance. The deeper filters presented better removals for all the parameter tested, due to higher hydraulic detention times (HDTs). The dosing regime and resting period duration all affected the hydraulic performance and purification efficiency of the filters.

Aquifer recharge presents advantages for integrated water management in the anthropic cycle, namely, advanced treatment of reclaimed water and additional dilution of pollutants due to mixing with natural groundwater. Nevertheless, this practice represents a health and environmental hazard because of the presence of pathogenic microorganisms and chemical contaminants. To assess the quality of water extracted from recharged aquifers, the groundwater recharge systems in Torreele, Belgium, Sabadell, Spain, and Nardò, Italy, were investigated for fecal-contamination indicators, bacterial pathogens, and antibiotic resistance genes over the period of 1 year. Real-time quantitative PCR assays for Helicobacter pylori, Yersinia enterocolitica , and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis , human pathogens with long-time survival capacity in water, and for the resistance genes ermB, mecA, blaSHV-5, ampC, tetO , and vanA were adapted or developed for water samples differing in pollutant content. The resistance genes and pathogen concentrations were determined at five or six sampling points for each recharge system. In drinking and irrigation water, none of the pathogens were detected. tetO and ermB were found frequently in reclaimed water from Sabadell and Nardò. mecA was detected only once in reclaimed water from Sabadell. The three aquifer recharge systems demonstrated different capacities for removal of fecal contaminators and antibiotic resistance genes. Ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis in the Torreele plant proved to be very efficient barriers for the elimination of both contaminant types, whereas aquifer passage followed by UV treatment and chlorination at Sabadell and the fractured and permeable aquifer at Nardò posed only partial barriers for bacterial contaminants.