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The complex spatial structure and dynamics of ecological communities continue to defy explanation by simple principles despite decades of attention from ecologists and theoreticians. For example, the relationship between plant spatial distributions and species coexistence is often challenging to resolve in empirical settings. By analysing the spatial patterns of trees in 21 large forest plots we find a general and strong latitudinal gradient in the relationship between conspecific aggregation and abundance of tree species, with stronger negative abundance-dependency as latitude increases. To derive theoretical expectations for how interactions between multiple spatial pattern and processes can impact species coexistence, we incorporate the observed spatial patterns together with neighbourhood crowding competition into a mathematical model to estimate the local extinction risk of species. Strikingly, we find simple relationships that predict species local extinction risk from their demography and spatial distribution. Compared to a corresponding non-spatial analysis, accounting for spatial patterns reduces the 1000-year extinction risk on average by 52% when species invade from low abundances of 50 individuals. Additionally, based on their current abundances, only 8% of the species had an extinction risk greater than 5%. Our approach opens up new avenues for integrating observed spatial patterns with multiple ecological processes into mathematical theory. Our results demonstrate that emerging spatial patterns can contribute substantially to coexistence in species-rich forests, emphasizing the need to understand the interacting multiple processes underpinning spatial patterns in greater detail than has previously been appreciated.

Forest canopy structure is closely related to species diversity, crown packing efficiency and ecological processes including competition and local disturbance, and influences ecosystem functions. However, our understanding of how canopy structural diversity mediates species diversity and productivity relationships remains limited. We used tree architecture measurements and repeated census data within the Badagongshan 25 ha species-rich forest dynamics plot. We created a new index-canopy surface rugosity (CSR) to represent the external heterogeneity of a forest canopy, and quantified internal heterogeneity by crown complementarity index (CCI) and crown size variations. We then calculated species diversity, functional diversity, annual forest productivity (ANPP), soil fertility, and water availability, and subsequently examined their casual relationships and their relative importance on ANPP using structural equation models. CSR significantly varied among quadrats (20 m×20 m) and decreased with species diversity and ANPP. Species diversity increased with ANPP, primarily through direct effect, CSR and CCI. CSR contributed 6 times and almost 2 times more explanations than CCI in mediating the effect of species and functional diversity on ANPP, respectively. Soil fertility affected ANPP mainly by positive direct effect and indirectly through species richness and CCI, while water availability affected ANPP mainly by negative indirect effect through CSR, CCI and species richness. A new index- CSR successfully captured the heterogeneity of external- canopy structure, which provided strong support for a space-based niche partitioning mechanism regulating species diversity-ANPP relationship. Further, CSR was sensitive to gap dynamics and successional stages, suggesting a mechanism of local disturbance- structural diversity- species diversity-ANPP relationships.

It is well known that evergreen and deciduous species have different functional traits and utilize different strategies in growth and adaptation to environments, however little work has been done to elucidate whether leaf habit mediate the effect of trait-environment interactions on plant performance. Here we wanted to illuminate whether relative growth rate of deciduous and evergreen species depended on multiple trait-environment interactions. We measured eight leaf traits of 1230 individuals from 25 species and collected topographic factors, edaphic variables and competition index in a subtropic evergreen and deciduous mixed forest. Then we modeled plant relative growth rate with high-order trait-environment interactions for evergreen and deciduous species respectively using generalized linear mixed model and visualized the difference between leaf habits. Results showed that leaf habits were divided by trait PC1 (41.8%) which was related to leaf lifespan and resource acquisition. We found that trait-environment interactions improved growth predictions for both leaf habits but the optimal models for them were different. Moreover, the explanatory power of deciduous species models was always higher than that of evergreens. These results indicated that leaf habits with different life history strategies were reflected by trait-environment interactions. We emphasized the importance of leaf habits in explaining forest productivity and functions, and future research should focus on the effects of leaf habits on other demographic metrics and spatial patterns to solve the coexistence of the two leaf habits in mixed forests.

Ecosystem stability reveals how ecosystems respond to global change over time. Yet, the focus of past research on small spatial grains and extents overlooks scale dependence and how broad-scale environmental gradients shape stability. Here, we use forest inventory data covering a broad latitudinal gradient from the temperate to the tropical zone to examine cross-scale variation in stability of aboveground biomass and underlying stabilizing mechanisms. While stability did not shift systematically with latitude at either spatial grain, we found evidence that species asynchrony increased towards the tropics at the small spatial grain while species stability decreased at both spatial grains. Moreover, latitude stabilized forest communitiesviaits effects on both stabilizing mechanisms, which compensated for the weak and destabilizing effects of species richness. Yet, the trade-off in the relative importance of species stability and species asynchrony for stability was not mediated by latitude, suggesting that context-dependent factors - to a greater extent than macroecological ones - underlie large-scale patterns of stability. Our results highlight the crucial role of species asynchrony and species stability in determining ecosystem stability across broad-scale environmental gradients, suggesting that conserving biodiversity alone may not be sufficient for stabilizing naturally-assembled forest ecosystems.

Improving the accuracy of predictions regarding how plants respond to climate change is crucial to protecting biodiversity. However, little is known about the effects of seed source and elevation on the response of mountain plant species to reductions in precipitation. Here, we collected seeds of a tree species (Euptelea pleiospermum) from three seed sources and carried out a two-growing-season reciprocal transplant experiment with precipitation manipulation at three sites along an elevation gradient in the Shennongjia Mountains, central China. Variations in whole-plant traits, leaf traits, and root traits were investigated. We found that most plant traits of E. pleiospermum seedlings were affected by reductions in precipitation, and responses varied among different elevations and seed sources. Whole-plant traits, root biomass, and leaf traits related to photosynthesis capacity decreased under reduced precipitation treatments at mid and high elevation sites. Thus, climate change induced drought will likely have a negative influence on seedling growth at mid and high elevation regions. In addition, a home-site advantage in whole-plant traits and root traits was observed. However, the responses of leaf traits in most cases were not affected by seed source because of higher phenotypic plasticity. Our results suggested that both local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity were important in seedling growth responses to reduced precipitation. We also highlight the importance of taking intraspecific variation into account when studying the response of plants to changes in climate.

Ecological theory suggests that species with complementary architectural and physiological traits can optimize crown packing to improve resource efficiency and promote ecosystem productivity in forest communities. However, empirical evidence of this prediction is rare in species-rich natural forests, as little is known about how crown spatial complementarity regulates community species richness-productivity relationship (SRPR). In this study, we measured tree architectural traits (stem diameter, height, crown depth and width) for 11,337 trees, and quantified species richness, functional diversity, crown spatial complementarity, soil fertility and forest productivity for 44 quadrats (20 m × 20 m per quadrat) in the Badagongshan 25 ha forest plot, central China. We tested bivariate correlations between species richness, crown complementarity, functional diversity and forest productivity. We employed linear mixed effects models to predict crown complementarity and examined its relationship with functional diversity. Finally, we applied structural equation modeling to quantify the mediation effects of crown complementarity on SRPRs. Species richness promoted crown complementarity and forest productivity. Crown complementarity varied across quadrats, with increases driven primarily by changes in tree height. Crown complementarity was positively related to functional diversity and forest productivity. Species richness increased with soil total phosphorus, while functional diversity decreased with soil bulk density. Forest productivity increased with soil organic carbon and total nitrogen, but decreased with bulk density. Crown complementarity partially mediated the positive effect of species richness on forest productivity, and the mediation effect was mainly through functional diversity. Our results suggest that the crown complementarity index accurately reflects the niche complementarity through light utilization and carbon reallocation. Our study emphasizes that species richness can promote crown complementarity, leading to greater forest productivity, which provides greater insight into the mechanical understanding of the SRPRs.

Plant-associated microbes are essential for promoting plant well-being, maintaining biodiversity, and supporting ecosystem function. However, little is known about the geographic distribution of plant-microbe symbioses and how they are formed and change along latitudinal gradients. Here we identified leaf bacteria for 328 plant species sampled from 10 forests along a tropical to temperate gradient in China. We analyzed the diversity and composition of plant leaf-associated bacteria and quantified the contributions of hosts, habitats, and neighborhood plants to the plant-bacterial symbiosis. We found a strong latitudinal gradient in leaf bacterial diversity and composition. Bacterial assemblages on leaves were most strongly selected by host plants, and the selection pressure increased with latitude. In contrast, at low latitudes and at large geographical scales multiple factors were found to jointly regulate bacterial community composition. Our result also showed that plant-bacteria symbiotic networks were structured by network hub bacteria taxa with high co-occurrence network centrality, and the abundance of temperate hub taxa was more influenced by host plants than that in tropical forests. For the first time, we documented a previously unrecognized latitudinal gradient in plant-bacterial symbioses that was regulated by a joint effect of multiple factors at low latitudes but mostly by host selection at high latitudes, implying that leaf microbiomes are likely to respond differently to global change along the latitudinal gradient.

Despite several decades of study in community ecology, the relative importance of the ecological processes that determine species co‐occurrence across spatial scales remains uncertain. Some of this uncertainty may be reduced by studying the scale dependency of community assembly in the light of environmental variation. Phylogenetic information and functional trait information are often used to provide potentially valuable insights into the drivers of community assembly. Here, we combined phylogenetic and trait‐based tests to gain insights into community processes at four spatial scales in a large stem‐mapped subtropical forest dynamics plot in central China. We found that all of the six leaf economic traits measured in this study had weak, but significant, phylogenetic signal. Nonrandom phylogenetic and trait‐based patterns associated with topographic variables indicate that deterministic processes tend to dominate community assembly in this plot. Specifically, we found that, on average, co‐occurring species were more phylogenetically and functionally similar than expected throughout the plot at most spatial scales and assemblages of less similar than expected species could only be found on finer spatial scales. In sum, our results suggest that the trait‐based effects on community assembly change with spatial scale in a predictable manner and the association of these patterns with topographic variables, indicates the importance of deterministic processes in community assembly relatively to random processes., Trait‐based and phylogenetic tests of subtropical tree community assembly across scales.

Vegetation maps are important sources of information for biodiversity conservation, ecological studies, vegetation management and restoration, and national strategic decision making. The current Vegetation Map of China (1:1000000) was generated by a team of more than 250 scientists in an effort that lasted over 20 years starting in the 1980s. However, the vegetation distribution of China has experienced drastic changes during the rapid development of China in the last three decades, and it urgently needs to be updated to better represent the distribution of current vegetation types. Here, we describe the process of updating the Vegetation Map of China (1:1000000) generated in the 1980s using a “crowdsourcing-change detection-classification-expert knowledge” vegetation mapping strategy. A total of 203,024 field samples were collected, and 50 taxonomists were involved in the updating process. The resulting updated map has 12 vegetation type groups, 55 vegetation types/subtypes, and 866 vegetation formation/sub-formation types. The overall accuracy and kappa coefficient of the updated map are 64.8% and 0.52 at the vegetation type group level, 61% and 0.55 at the vegetation type/subtype level and 40% and 0.38 at the vegetation formation/sub-formation level. When compared to the original map, the updated map showed that 3.3 million km2 of vegetated areas of China have changed their vegetation type group during the past three decades due to anthropogenic activities and climatic change. We expect this updated map to benefit the understanding and management of China’s terrestrial ecosystems.

Seeds of a relict tree species collected from high latitudes were more sensitive to temperature and warming could accelerate germination. Seed germination is a crucial process in a plant life cycle and is highly vulnerable to environmental change. Studying among-population variation in seed germination in response to environmental and geographic gradients is an important tool, allowing us to understand how plants adapt to different environmental conditions and to predict population dynamics under future climate change. Here, we collected seeds of Euptelea pleiospermum, a relict broad-leaved tree species, from six provenances along latitudinal and altitudinal gradients across its distribution in China. We investigated variation in seed germination percentage and germination timing of seeds from these different origins (low, middle, and high latitudes/altitudes) at three incubation temperatures (15 °C, 20 °C and 25 °C). The key results were as follows: first, seeds collected from high latitudes were more sensitive to temperature and was likely to benefit from the higher incubation temperature with increasing germination percentage and shorter germination timing; second, for seeds across latitudes, germination percentage of central populations was lower than that of marginal populations; seed origin and its interaction with temperature were the major drivers of germination percentage variation; germination timing was significantly affected by incubation temperature, and warming could accelerate germination; third, for seeds across altitudes, both germination percentage and germination timing were not significantly affected by seed origin, incubation temperature, or their interaction. Our results indicate that climate warming may influence the population dynamics of relict tree species by altering their seed germination patterns, especially for the leading-edge populations along latitudinal gradient. It is vital to take inter-population variation across species’ geographic distribution into account when estimating the impact of environmental changes on plant species’ distribution and population persistence.

QUESTIONS: Do neighbourhood interactions in trees result in discernible spatial and phylogenetic signals among their nearest neighbours in a montane evergreen and deciduous forest? Are neighbourhood patterns of different species associated with their abundances and traits? LOCATION: Badagongshan National Nature Reserve, Hunan, China. METHODS: We used four nearest‐neighbour indices: average spatial distance to the nearest conspecific cohort‐mate (SNCC), average spatial distance to the nearest conspecific adult (SNCA), average phylogenetic distance to the nearest heterospecific cohort‐mate (PNHC), and average phylogenetic distance to the nearest heterospecific adult (PNHA). We focused on 77 abundant species in a 25‐ha plot. We evaluated whether the changes in SNCC, PNHC, SNCA and PNHA deviated significantly from expected values of spatially random mortality during two life stage transitions. RESULTS: For more than one‐fourth of the tested species, the changes in SNCC and PNHC deviated significantly from the expectations of random mortality. Nearly one‐third of the tested species showed greater SNCC at the juvenile stage than expected of random mortality, which may be mainly explained by conspecific tree competition for space and resources. Approximately 60% and 40% of the tested species showed significantly smaller SNCA and PNHA than expected by random mortality, respectively, which suggests the effects of facilitation and habitat filtering. In addition, abundant and taller species were suppressed by conspecific cohorts to a greater degree than locally rarer and shorter species. Deciduous species were more negatively influenced by conspecifics and closely related heterospecifics than evergreen species. CONCLUSIONS: Our study focused on long‐term responses of individual species to their conspecific and phylogenetic neighbourhoods and revealed the associations between species traits and neighbourhood patterns. Such trait–neighbourhood interactions provide support for stabilizing mechanisms driving species coexistence in this species‐rich subtropical forest.

Tree architecture is crucial to maximizing light capture, determined by carbon allocation of individual trees, and consequently characterizes species-specific growth strategies. Its variation and associated life-history strategies have been examined in tropical and temperate forests, but not in subtropical forests. Moreover, a similar architectural pattern was found using a hierarchical Bayesian model in a tropical forest, which differed from most of previous studies. Here, we employed a hierarchical Bayesian model to examine tree architecture differences and associations with adult stature and light requirement among 59 subtropical co-occurring species. Architectural variations among tree species with different seed dispersal and leaf phenology types were analyzed. Most species showed similar architecture in the height of the lowest foliage-tree height relationships (F-H) and the long side of crown- tree height relationships (W1-H), but some species showed interspecific variations in tree height-stem diameter relationships (H-D) among the 59 co-occurring species in the subtropical montane forest. Trees developed deeper and larger crowns at mid-elevation compared to the tropical and temperate forests. Parameters of H-D relationship differed in leaf phenology and dispersal types, and intercepts of F-H relationship and W1-H relationship differed in leaf phenology. Large-statured species had more slender stems, and shallower and narrower crowns at small sizes, but similar crowns at large sizes. Light-demanding species showed weak correlations between architectural variables and light requirement but exhibited wide crowns at the intermediate sizes. In general, size-dependent architectural differentiation was driven mainly by adult stature and light requirement in subtropical forest. Coexistence species showed different life-history strategies in light capture, which may help provide options in forest thinning and harvesting in subtropical forest. Species-specific tree architectural models of 59 co-occurring species represent three-dimensional (3D) structure of this subtropical forest accurately, but also support for future terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) data analysis.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EcM) associations are critical for host-tree performance. However, how mycorrhizal associations correlate with the latitudinal tree beta-diversity remains untested. Using a global dataset of 45 forest plots representing 2,804,270 trees across 3840 species, we test how AM and EcM trees contribute to total beta-diversity and its components (turnover and nestedness) of all trees. We find AM rather than EcM trees predominantly contribute to decreasing total beta-diversity and turnover and increasing nestedness with increasing latitude, probably because wide distributions of EcM trees do not generate strong compositional differences among localities. Environmental variables, especially temperature and precipitation, are strongly correlated with beta-diversity patterns for both AM trees and all trees rather than EcM trees. Results support our hypotheses that latitudinal beta-diversity patterns and environmental effects on these patterns are highly dependent on mycorrhizal types. Our findings highlight the importance of AM-dominated forests for conserving global forest biodiversity., The relationship of mycorrhizal associations with latitudinal gradients in tree beta-diversity is unexplored. Using a global dataset approach, this study examines how trees with arbuscular mycorrhizal and ectomycorrhizal associations contribute to latitudinal beta-diversity patterns and the environmental controls of these patterns.

From supporting wood production to mitigating climate change, forest ecosystem services are crucial to the well-being of humans. Understanding the mechanisms that drive forest dynamics can help us infer how to maintain forest ecosystem services and how to improve predictions of forest dynamics under climate change. Despite the growing number of studies exploring above ground biomass (AGB) dynamics, questions of dynamics in biodiversity and in number of individuals still remain unclear. Here, we first explored the patterns of community dynamics in different aspects (i.e., AGB, density and biodiversity) based on short-term (five years) data from a 25-ha permanent plot in a subtropical forest in central China. Second, we examined the relationships between community dynamics and biodiversity and functional traits. Third, we identified the key factors affecting different aspects of community dynamics and quantified their relative contributions. We found that in the short term (five years), net above ground biomass change (ΔAGB) and biodiversity increased, while the number of individuals decreased. Resource-conservation traits enhanced the ΔAGB and reduced the loss in individuals, while the resource-acquisition traits had the opposite effect. Furthermore, the community structure contributed the most to ΔAGB, topographic variables and soil nutrients contributed the most to the number of individuals, demographic process contributed the most to biodiversity. Our results indicate that biotic factors mostly affected the community dynamics of ΔAGB and biodiversity, while the number of individuals was mainly shaped by abiotic factors. Our work highlighted that the factors influencing different aspects of community dynamics vary. Therefore, forest management practices should be formulated according to a specific protective purpose.

Flueggea acicularis(Phyllanthaceae) is endemic to the karst region of central China. Male specimens of this species were first collected in 1908. In 1989, female plants ofF. aciculariswere found for the first time, but misidentified as a new species. Throughout this period the male plants ofF. aciculariswere mismatched with female plants of other species, and male plants had not been collected since 1908. Then, in March, 2009, the authors rediscovered a wild population ofF. acicularisconsisting of both male and female plants in Wuxi county, Chongqing municipality, China. Based on field investigation and examination of specimens, we matched the correct female and male plants of this species for the first time since its initial publication a century ago. A complete and accurate morphological description, distribution, habitat and phenology of this species are also provided. Furthermore, the conservation status ofF. acicularisis assessed as “Near Threatened” (NT) according to the IUCN Red List criteria.

ForestGEO is a network of scientists and long-term forest dynamics plots (FDPs) spanning the Earth's major forest types. ForestGEO's mission is to advance understanding of the diversity and dynamics of forests and to strengthen global capacity for forest science research. ForestGEO is unique among forest plot networks in its large-scale plot dimensions, censusing of all stems ≥1 cm in diameter, inclusion of tropical, temperate and boreal forests, and investigation of additional biotic (e.g., arthropods) and abiotic (e.g., soils) drivers, which together provide a holistic view of forest functioning. The 71 FDPs in 27 countries include approximately 7.33 million living trees and about 12,000 species, representing 20% of the world's known tree diversity. With >1300 published papers, ForestGEO researchers have made significant contributions in two fundamental areas: species coexistence and diversity, and ecosystem functioning. Specifically, defining the major biotic and abiotic controls on the distribution and coexistence of species and functional types and on variation in species' demography has led to improved understanding of how the multiple dimensions of forest diversity are structured across space and time and how this diversity relates to the processes controlling the role of forests in the Earth system. Nevertheless, knowledge gaps remain that impede our ability to predict how forest diversity and function will respond to climate change and other stressors. Meeting these global research challenges requires major advances in standardizing taxonomy of tropical species, resolving the main drivers of forest dynamics, and integrating plot-based ground and remote sensing observations to scale up estimates of forest diversity and function, coupled with improved predictive models. However, they cannot be met without greater financial commitment to sustain the long-term research of ForestGEO and other forest plot networks, greatly expanded scientific capacity across the world's forested nations, and increased collaboration and integration among research networks and disciplines addressing forest science.

Investigating the drivers of phenotypic and genetic divergence can reveal the underlying processes and strategies that species adopt in rapidly changing environments. However, knowledge of adaptive strategies and the underlying mechanisms is lacking for the majority of taxa, especially those living in habitats sensitive to climate change. Here, we investigated 20 populations of a Tertiary-relict tree species, Euptelea pleiospermum (Eupteleaceae), scattered in a mountain riparian habitat in China. We integrated genetic, growth, and reproductive traits, and evaluated the relative contributions of climatic and soil factors on genetic and functional trait divergence. The E. pleiospermum populations were divided into south and north genetic clusters, and there were significant differences in leaf density and seed mass of adult trees between the two. The spatial pattern of genetic divergence resulted from effects of both isolation by distance (IBD) and isolation by environment (IBE), whereas the divergence of growth and reproductive traits resulted solely from IBE effects. Spatial distance and selection by temperature and soils played dominant roles in genetic divergence. Precipitation drove the spatial divergence of sprouting. Both divergence of leaf density and seed mass were prominently induced by genetic divergence, and the influences might be enhanced by temperature and soil nutrients. We infer that E. pleiospermum populations adopt a resource-conservative strategy with low growth rates and higher sprouting under flooding disturbance, with larger seeds for improved seedling recruitment at lower latitudes. In contrast, high growth rate and sexual reproduction with small seeds are strategies adopted by populations at higher latitudes. We conclude that sprouting reflects a plastic response to precipitation, and leaf density and seed mass reflect local adaption under selection by temperature and soil factors. The underlying mechanisms of species adaptation strategies were trait-specific. Temperature and soil conditions are likely the main ecological factors shaping plant divergence in montane riparian regions.

Foundation species structure forest communities and ecosystems but are difficult to identify without long-term observations or experiments. We used statistical criteria--outliers from size-frequency distributions and scale-dependent negative effects on alpha diversity and positive effects on beta diversity--to identify candidate foundation woody plant species in 12 large forest-dynamics plots spanning 26 degrees of latitude in China. We used these data (1) to identify candidate foundation species in Chinese forests, (2) to test the hypothesis--based on observations of a midlatitude peak in functional trait diversity and high local species richness but few numerically dominant species in tropical forests--that foundation woody plant species are more frequent in temperate than tropical or boreal forests, and (3) to compare these results with data from the Americas to suggest candidate foundation genera in northern hemisphere forests. Using the most stringent criteria, only two species of Acer, the canopy tree Acer ukurunduense and the shrubby treelet Acer barbinerve, were identified in temperate plots as candidate foundation species. Using more relaxed criteria, we identified four times more candidate foundation species in temperate plots (including species of Acer, Pinus, Juglans, Padus, Tilia, Fraxinus, Prunus, Taxus, Ulmus, and Corlyus) than in (sub)tropical plots (the treelets or shrubs Aporosa yunnanensis, Ficus hispida, Brassaiopsis glomerulata, and Orophea laui). Species diversity of co-occurring woody species was negatively associated with basal area of candidate foundation species more frequently at 5- and 10-m spatial grains (scale) than at a 20-m grain. Conversely, Bray-Curtis dissimilarity was positively associated with basal area of candidate foundation species more frequently at 5-m than at 10- or 20-m grains. Both stringent and relaxed criteria supported the hypothesis that foundation species are more common in mid-latitude temperate forests. Comparisons of candidate foundation species in Chinese and North American forests suggest that Acer be investigated further as a foundation tree genus.

Foundation species play important roles in structuring forest communities and ecosystems. Foundation species are difficult to identify without long-term observations or experiments and their foundational roles rarely are identified before they are declining or threatened. We used new statistical criteria based on size-frequency distributions, species diversity, and spatial codispersion among woody plants to identify potential (“candidate”) foundation species in 12 large forest dynamics plots spanning 26 degrees of latitude in China. We used these data to identify a suite of candidate foundation species in Chinese forests; test the hypothesis that foundation woody plant species are more frequent in the temperate zone than in the tropics; and compare these results with comparable data from the Americas to suggest candidate foundation genera in Northern Hemisphere forests. We identified more candidate foundation species in temperate plots than in subtropical or tropical plots, and this relationship was independent of the latitudinal gradient in overall species richness. Two species of Acer, the canopy tree Acer ukurunduense and the shrubby treelet Acer barbinerve were the only two species that met both criteria in full to be considered as candidate foundation species. When we relaxed the diversity criteria, Acer, Tilia, and Juglans spp., and Corlyus mandshurica were frequently identified as candidate foundation species. In tropical plots, the tree Mezzettiopsis creaghii and the shrubs or treelets Aporusa yunnanensis and Ficus hispida had some characteristics associated with foundation species. Species diversity of co-occurring woody species was negatively associated with basal area of candidate foundation species more frequently at 5- and 10-m spatial grains (scale) than at a 20-m grain. Conversely, Bray-Curtis dissimilarity was positively associated with basal area of candidate foundation species more frequently at 5-m than at 10- or 20-m grains. Our data support the hypothesis that foundation species should be more common in temperate than in tropical or boreal forests, and suggest that in the Northern Hemisphere that Acer be investigated further as a foundation tree genus.

Climate change has been observed to significantly influence forest growth, community composition, and species distribution ranges. These influences in turn will impose continuous impacts on forest production and carbon (C) storage potential. Forests in the subtropical China that are experiencing rapid regeneration and recovery may suffer multiple threats in the face of future climate change. Understanding how climate change may affect forest C sequestration and species dynamics over time will help formulate better management strategies for maintaining forest productivity and biodiversity. Here, we used a forest landscape model (LANDIS‐II) to evaluate the long‐term effects of current business‐as‐usual (BAU) management and climate projections (current, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 climate scenarios; IPCC representative concentration pathways [RCPs] scenarios) on above‐ and belowground forest C storage and tree species dynamics in the Sangzhi County in the subtropical China. Our simulations showed a fast‐growing period of forest total C in the first 70 yr, regardless of climate regime. Moderate climate change (RCP4.5 climate scenario) increased soil organic carbon (SOC) (12%) and detrital C (16%) but reduced live C (5%), contributing to a slight augment of 3% in forest C storage compared to the control climate, while severe climate change (RCP8.5 climate scenario) decreased SOC (16%), detrital C (27%), and live C (12%), resulting in a dramatic reduction of 14% in forest C storage, primarily because severe warming‐induced water stress restrained species establishment and regeneration in temperature‐sensitive areas like the lower elevations. Meanwhile, nature reserves in the higher elevations could act as “safe islands” by providing suitable conditions for most tree species, but the logging ban caused higher canopy closure, which in turn inhibit the growth and establishment of shade‐intolerant species. The results also highlighted the positive responses of native “warm species” to climate warming and suggest that using them to replace some conventional coniferous plantation tree species would better mitigate the future climate change. Poor performance of the current BAU management in maintaining forest productivity and diversity suggests that new climate‐adapted management strategies should be designed accordingly.

Patterns of genetic variation along both latitudinal and elevational gradients have been intensively studied in the last few decades. To date, however, elevational patterns of genetic diversity and gene flow remain rarely compared for the same species along mountains at the center and edges of its latitudinal range. We used nuclear microsatellite analysis to compare the elevational patterns of both genetic variation and gene flow for Euptelea pleiospermum along elevational transects on the Qinling (33°N; leading edge), Shennongjia (31°N; mid-latitude), and Emei (29°N; rear edge) Mountains in China. First, we found no elevational pattern of genetic diversity along the two marginal mountains, but we found higher genetic diversity in the middle-altitude populations than in the low- and high-altitudes along the mid-latitude mountain. Second, there was no obvious genetic structure along the two marginal mountains, but individuals along the mid-latitude mountain were clustered into the upper and lower groups. Third, the contemporary gene flow along the two marginal mountains was higher than that along the mid-latitude mountain. Lastly, we found no isolation-by-distance along all three mountains and a significant isolation-by-elevation along the mid-latitude mountain but not along the two marginal mountains. Our results demonstrated that the elevational patterns of both genetic variation and gene flow for a tree species are different along mountains at the core and edges of its latitudinal range. These differences are likely associated with the discrepancies in spatial isolation, ecological stability, and vegetation types, but not historical events (e.g., post-glacial recolonization) at different latitudes.

Understanding how plant species respond to extreme climate events is crucial for planning management and conservation actions. As extreme precipitation accelerates, the waterlogging related to it is predicted to be more severe and frequent. To date, however, empirical studies addressing the effects of extreme precipitation-induced waterlogging on the seeds of wild plants are still scarce. In this study, we compared the size, mass and element concentration of seeds produced by non-inundated and inundated individuals of Sinojackia huangmeiensis, a critically endangered tree species with only one extant wild population. Compared to the seeds from non-inundated individuals, the seed length, seed width, and seed mass were all smaller for seeds from inundated individuals. However, the concentrations of four chemical elements in the seed displayed an opposite trend, except those elements (e.g., C, K, Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, Ni, B, Mo, and Cu) with no significant difference. Some toxic elements (e.g., Mn) accumulated in the seeds from inundated individuals, as well as some nucleic acid-protein elements (e.g., N and P) and enzymatic (e.g., Zn) elements. Our study provides rare empirical evidence that wild plants could respond to extreme precipitation-induced waterlogging by changing both seed morphological traits and element concentrations.

Seed traits related to recruitment can directly affect plant fitness and persistence. Phenotypic variability in seed traits among populations could increase species resilience and reduce the risk of extinction under climate change. However, seed trait variations along geographic gradients of relict mountain tree species remain poorly explored despite their vulnerability to environmental changes. Here, we collected seeds of Euptelea pleiospermum from 18 populations across its natural distribution in China, measured seed morphology and seed nutrients, and performed a germination test. We investigated geographic patterns of seed traits and analyzed the relationships between environmental factors and seed traits. We also analyzed the relationships between seed intrinsic attributes and seed germination percentage. In addition, we explored the direct and indirect effects of climatic and edaphic variables on seed germination percentage. We found substantial variation in seed traits of this species among populations. Seed mass decreased from low to high latitude, and seed size (length and width) decreased with longitude from west to east. Seed germination timing increased from low to high altitude. Temperature and soil phosphorus determined the geographic variation of seed traits. Seed mass and seed nitrogen had positive effects on seed germination percentage. Seed intrinsic attributes, rather than maternal environmental factors, were the dominant drivers of the variability in seed germination percentage. However, maternal environmental variables could indirectly affect the seed germination percentage through their effects on seed morphology and nutrients. These results demonstrate that among-population seed trait variations are mainly driven by climatic variables and soil nutrients, and indicate that climate warming is likely to alter seed germination patterns by shifting seed intrinsic attributes. Our study provides insight into how mountain tree species regulate seed traits and germination time to adapt to heterogeneous environments and improves our power to predict how relict plants may respond to climate change.

How well ex situ living collections capture the genetic variation of their wild-source populations, is an efficient indicator for assessing the success of ex situ conservation. Here, we explore the origins and genetic representation of multiple species' ex situ living collections that have been established for 20–35 years. We only sampled the potential wild-source populations, which cover parts of the focal species’ natural distribution ranges. Using microsatellite loci, we compared the genetic diversity between ex situ and wild populations, and verified the wild-source populations of ex situ living collections for five endangered tree species (i.e., Davidia involucrata, Dipteronia sinensis, Tetracentron sinense, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, and Tapiscia sinensis). We found that the genetic diversity of ex situ populations is comparable to their wild-source populations for all five plant species. We detected weak genetic structure among ex situ and wild-source populations for each species. Our results suggested that ex situ living plant collections may have comparable genetic diversity compared with their corresponding wild-source populations. We recommend that additional ex situ collections from different maternal lines across ex situ institutions or the distribution range of the target species would contribute to high level of genetic representation of ex situ populations, and (2) complete collection records and optimal sampling strategies are required for effective ex situ plant conservation.

Myricaria laxiflora (Tamaricaceae) is an endangered and endemic riparian shrub along Yangtze River in Three Gorges Reservoir Area (TGRA) of Central China. Because of the construction of the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) project, most of natural distribution sites of M. laxiflora were destroyed. We have established six reintroduction sites for this species in Chongqing Municipality and Hubei Province. The growth rhythm of transplanted populations was basically consistent with its origin population. The reintroduction and ex situ populations of M. laxiflora can blossom and bear fruit normally, but not produce offspring, so there are renewal barriers. It is necessary to continue monitoring and managing the reintroduction populations.

Ex-situ conservation, the transplanting of individuals outside of their natural range, can dramatically alter biotic interactions among species. Here, we explored the shifts in the herbivory pressure and defense strategies of ex-situ populations of five endangered tree species (Pterostyrax psilophyllus, Davidia involucrata, Dipteronia sinensis, Tapiscia sinensis, and Tetracentron sinense) after 20–35 years since translocation. All species were not native to the ex-situ site and only P. psilophyllus had a closely related native species (Pterostyrax corymbosus). We compared the leaf damage type, herbivory rate, and chemistry (total phenols, tannins, N, and P) of each species, and assessed the relationship between the herbivory rate and leaf chemistry between the ex-situ and wild populations. Excluding P. psilophyllus, all species in the ex-situ populations showed changes in the type of leaf damage and lower overall herbivory rates. Ex-situ populations of P. psilophyllus showed reduced total phenol, N, and P levels, while the other four species showed decreased total phenol and tannin levels, or increased N and P levels. The herbivory rate was positively correlated with the N and P levels in wild populations, and negatively correlated with the total phenol content in ex-situ populations. These differences reflect the reduced herbivory pressure, decreased defense ability, and shift in defense strategy of ex-situ populations. We showed that prolonged exposure to the ex-situ environment led to the maladaptation of these endangered plant species to herbivory pressure in the natural environment, and that these shifts should be considered in ex-situ conservation and reintroduction strategies.

Soil properties are highly heterogeneous in forest ecosystems, which poses difficulties in estimating soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) pools. However, little is known about the relative contributions of environmental factors and vegetation to spatial variations in soil C and N, especially in highly diverse mixed forests. Here, we examined the spatial variations of soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) in a subtropical mixed forest in central China, and then quantified the main drivers. Soil samples (n = 972) were collected from a 25-ha forest dynamic plot in Badagonshan Nature Reserve, central China. All trees with diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥1 cm and topography data in the plot were surveyed in detail. Geostatistical analyses were used to characterize the spatial variability of SOC and TN, while variation partitioning combined with Mantel’s test were used to quantify the relative contribution of each type of factors. Both surface soil (0–10 cm) and subsurface soil (10–30 cm) exhibited moderate spatial autocorrelation with explainable fractions ranged from 31 to 47 %. The highest contribution to SOC and TN variation came from soil variables (including soil pH and available phosphorus), followed by vegetation and topographic variables. Although the effect of topography was weak, Mantel’s test still showed a significant relationship between topography and SOC. Strong interactions among these variables were discovered. Compared with surface soil, the explanatory power of environmental variables was much lower for subsurface soil. The differences in relative contributions between surface and subsurface soils suggest that the dominating ecological process are likely different in the two soil depths. The large unexplained variation emphasized the importance of fine-scale variations and ecological processes. The large variations in soil C and N and their controlling mechanisms should be taken into account when evaluating how forest managements may affect C and N cycles.

Aim This study tests predictions of the central-marginal (C-M) hypothesis using geographical patterns of genetic variation in a Cenozoic relict tree species Euptelea pleiospermum. Additionally, we explore the extent to which post-glacial recolonization and landscape barriers created by topographical heterogeneity shape spatial genetic variation. Location South-west and central subtropical China. Methods Using microsatellite data of 678 individuals from 21 populations, we documented geographical patterns of genetic diversity and population genetic structure, supplemented with current and past (Last Glacial Maximum, LGM) distributions based on species distribution models (SDMs). Genetic structure was determined by non-spatial and spatially sensitive Bayesian clustering, analysis of molecular variance, barrier analysis and a multivariate population graphing approach. We also examined both historical and contemporary gene flow. Results Genetic diversity significantly declined with distance from centre and showed unimodal patterns along both latitude and longitude. The C-M pattern of genetic diversity along latitudinal gradient is high-latitude-skewed, with the peak at higher portion of the species' latitudinal extent. The Sichuan Basin divided individuals into south and north clusters, whereas the Qinba Mountains did not. The general shape of the predicted distribution during the LGM is strongly similar with that of current distribution, except the Sichuan Basin. Main conclusions Our study provides genetic evidence for the C-M hypothesis in a Cenozoic relict tree species across its distribution in China. The Sichuan Basin, rather than the Qinba Mountains, acts as dispersal barrier for a mountain tree species. Our results suggest that in situ refugia were maintained across southwest and central China during the LGM. The slight post-glacial northward expansion and asymmetrical south–north historical-gene flow did not result in a low-latitude-skewed C-M pattern of genetic diversity. Instead, complex topography in combination with the C-M dispersal dynamics shaped the latitudinal pattern of genetic diversity.

Tropical and subtropical forest ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon regulation. Despite increasing evidence for effects of biodiversity (species diversity, functional diversity and functional dominance), stand structural attributes, stand age and environmental conditions (climate and topography) on tree carbon storage, the relative importance of these drivers at large scale is poorly understood. It is also still unclear whether biodiversity effects on tree carbon storage work through niche complementarity (i.e. increased tree carbon storage due to interspecific resource partitioning) or through the mass-ratio effect (tree carbon storage regulated by dominant traits within communities). Here we analyze tree carbon storage and its drivers using data of 480 plots sampled across subtropical forests in China. We use multiple regression models to test the relative effects of biodiversity, stand structural attributes, stand age and environmental conditions on tree carbon storage, and use a partial least squares path model to test how these variables directly and/or indirectly affect tree carbon storage. Our results show that tree carbon storage is most strongly affected by stand age, followed by climate, biodiversity and stand structural attributes. Stand age and climate had both direct and indirect (through species diversity, functional dominance and stand structural attributes) effects. We find that tree carbon storage correlates with both species diversity and functional dominance after stand age and environmental drivers are accounted for. Our results suggest that niche complementarity and the mass-ratio effect, not necessarily mutually exclusive, both play a role in maintaining ecosystem functioning. Our results further indicate that biodiversity conservation might be an effective way for enhancing tree carbon storage in natural, species-rich forest ecosystems.