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The rapid development of the Internet has led to the prevalence of big data analysis. Data mining is crucial to extracting potentially valuable information from big data and has therefore received considerable attention from researchers. Python is a common programming language used in data mining. Because of its rich database and robust capacity for scientific calculations, Python is considered an irreplaceable tool for data mining. This study adopted Python to perform a data mining analysis on visitor comments on Booking.com. The study was divided into several stages, namely, data source selection, data acquisition, data saving, data preprocessing, indexing of comments on Booking.com through the Python-based Scrapy framework, and user operation simulation through Selenium to analyze the performance of the spider program. Data mining can be used to identify useful information, which can serve as references for consumers to make purchase decisions. Extraction of data from booking sites through spider programs enables site administrators to attract more visitors. Analysis of extracted data also facilitates the elimination of misjudged comments and helps hotels improve their service quality, hardware, and personnel training.

In this study, to facilitate the integration of environmental education in science curricula and achieve a more sustainable future, the relationships among scientific epistemic views, decision-making style, and recycling intention based on the theory of planned behavior were investigated. Three instruments (i.e. SEVs, DMS, and RI) were implemented on a sample of 515 Taiwanese high school students and revealed sufficient validity and reliability by employing exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Structural equation modeling analysis showed that students’ scientific epistemic views do not directly link to recycling intention, whereas SEVs predict decision-making styles and decision-making styles predict recycling intention. The research findings suggest that teachers might consider encouraging students to develop the ability to think deeply and holistically by adopting the scientific approach in environmental education. This research also provided important information for educators to deliver environmental education effectively under the environment of Confucian culture. Limitations of the study and future research recommendations are discussed.

While learning in Internet-based environments, students rely on metacognitive knowledge to organize, record, monitor, and review their learning path. In this experience, they may reveal either a "surface" or "deep" approach. In this study, 509 university students were administered the adapted versions of the ‘Metacognitive Knowledge regarding Internet-based Learning' questionnaire and of the ‘Approaches to Internet-based Learning' questionnaire. Positive correlations between metacognitive knowledge and approaches to Internet-based learning environments emerged: The metacognitive attitude was associated to a concerned and critical approach to learning whereas the negative attitude about Internet-based learning was associated to the surface approach. Students showed a global understanding of the peculiarities and opportunities of Internet-based learning environments rather than empathize a single cognitive or metacognitive feature.

In this study, we reviewed 76 journal articles on employing drawing assessment as a research tool in science education. Findings from the systematic review suggest four justifications for using dra...

Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) has become a key multivariate statistical modeling technique that educational researchers frequently use. This paper reviews the uses of PLS-SEM in 16 major e-learning journals, and provides guidelines for improving the use of PLS-SEM as well as recommendations for future applications in e-learning research. A total of 53 articles using PLS-SEM published in January 2009?August 2019 are reviewed. We assess these published applications in terms of the following key criteria: reasons for using PLS-SEM, model characteristics, sample characteristics, model evaluations and reporting. Our results reveal that small sample size and nonnormal data are the first two major reasons for using PLS-SEM. Moreover, we have identified how to extend the applications of PLS-SEM in the e-learning research field.

In the field of science education, laboratory learning environment has gained renewed interest in the recent decade. This study aimed to investigate the relationships among students’ conceptions of science laboratory learning, perceptions of the science laboratory learning environment, and their academic self-efficacy in science learning by adopting the structural equation modeling (SEM) technique. A total of 513 senior high school students (262 females) in Taiwan were invited to participate in this survey study. Three instruments were adapted and implemented to investigate the aim of the study (i.e. the conceptions of science laboratory learning questionnaire, the science laboratory environment inventory, and the academic self-efficacy in science learning questionnaire). The results indicated that the students’ conceptions of science laboratory learning made a significant contribution to their perceptions of the science laboratory environment, which consequently fostered their science learning self-efficacy. More specifically, students with conceptions of science laboratory learning as reviewing their prior learning profiles tended to highlight the “student cohesiveness,” “integration,” and “material environment” aspects of the laboratory environment. Moreover, students who held personal ideas of science laboratory learning as acquiring manipulative skills tended to perceive actual science laboratory environments as much more open-ended and to attain advanced academic science learning self-efficacy. In addition, those students who viewed laboratory learning as achieving in-depth understanding, and who perceived that laboratory activities are guided by clear rules, were prone to express a stronger sense of academic self-efficacy. Based on the results, practical implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

This study, first of all, aimed to develop a new survey to assess Taiwanese teachers’ perceived self-efficacy in STEM knowledge. Second, it aimed to probe any differences in teachers’ perceived self-efficacy in STEM knowledge regarding their gender and teaching subjects. Last, we examined the structural relations among teachers’ perceived self-efficacy in STEM knowledge and their attitudes toward STEM education. The participants were 220 high school teachers in Taiwan. The 30-item instrument consisted of six factors: scientific inquiry, technology use, engineering design, mathematical thinking, and synthesized knowledge of STEM, as well as attitudes toward STEM education. The results showed that the proposed instrument was valid and reliable. In addition, male teachers outperformed female teachers in each dimension of the survey. Last, teachers’ self-efficacy in synthesized knowledge of STEM had two mediating effects. One was in the relationship between self-efficacy in engineering design and attitudes toward STEM education. The other was in the relationship between self-efficacy in Mathematical Thinking and Attitudes toward STEM education.

Background: Researchers have indicated that assessment practices and methods should support learners’ construction of meaningful understanding of knowledge. Understanding students’ conceptions of assessment will enable us to construct more realistic, valid and fair assessments. Learners’ conceptualization of assessment would be imperative to serve as an essential reference to evaluate their learning progress.Purpose: This study evaluated and compared the Singaporean and Taiwanese middle school students’ conceptions of science assessment. Within-country gender comparisons were also explored.Sample: 424 Taiwanese and 333 Singaporean eighth graders were invited for a cross-country comparison.Design and methods: The participants completed a questionnaire named Conceptions of Science Assessment.Results: The findings showed that the summative assessment dominates in the Taiwanese classrooms, while formative and summative assessment are usually perceived in Singaporean classrooms. The Singaporean student...

The purpose of this study was to develop and validate an online contextualized test for assessing students’ understanding of epistemic knowledge of science. In addition, how students’ understanding of epistemic knowledge of science interacts with learner factors, including time spent on science learning, interest, self-efficacy, and gender, was also explored. The participants were 489 senior high school students (244 males and 245 females) from eight different schools in Taiwan. Based on the result of an extensive literature review, we first identified six factors of epistemic knowledge of science, such as status of scientific knowledge, the nature of scientific enterprise, measurement in science, and so on. An online test was then created for assessing students’ understanding of the epistemic knowledge of science. Also, a learner-factor survey was developed by adopting previous PISA survey items to measure the abovementioned learner factors. The results of this study show that; (1) by factor analysis, the six factors of epistemic knowledge of science could be grouped into two dimensions which reflect the nature of scientific knowledge and knowing in science, respectively; (2) there was a gender difference in the participants’ understanding of the epistemic knowledge of science; and (3) students’ interest in science learning and the time spent on science learning were positively correlated to their understanding of the epistemic knowledge of science.

The purpose of this study is to compare the conceptions of learning biology (COLB) of Taiwanese and Turkish high school students. In addition, it was investigated whether there is a gender difference in students’ COLB in both countries. The COLB questionnaire was implemented in both countries and students’ COLB were identified. A total of 562 Taiwanese and 546 Turkish high school students participated. The results indicated that the COLB questionnaire was valid and reliable for assessing Taiwanese and Turkish high school students’ COLB. And, a significant difference was found between Taiwanese and Turkish students’ mean scores in four learning conceptions as memorising, calculating and practicing, increasing one’s knowledge and seeing in a new way. Moreover, differences were found between the mean scores of Taiwanese female and male students in memorising and understanding; however, there were no mean differences between Turkish female and male students in COLB factors. In addition, analyses of cr...

In the area of science education research, studies have attempted to investigate conceptions of learning, approaches to learning, and self-efficacy, mainly focusing on science in general or on specific subjects such as biology, physics, and chemistry. However, few empirical studies have probed students’ earth science learning. This study aimed to explore the relationships among undergraduates’ conceptions of, approaches to, and self-efficacy for learning earth science by adopting the structural equation modeling technique. A total of 268 Taiwanese undergraduates (144 females) participated in this study. Three instruments were modified to assess the students’ conceptions of, approaches to, and self-efficacy for learning earth science. The results indicated that students’ conceptions of learning made a significant contribution to their approaches to learning, which were consequently correlated with their learning self-efficacy. More specifically, students with stronger agreement that learning earth ...

We review studies measuring people's perceptions of technology learning environments.A framework conceptualizing technology learning environments (TSLEs) is proposed.It includes six dimensions: technical, content, cognitive, metacognitive, social, & affective.The studies considered more the technical, cognitive and social dimensions.The results provide insights into an overview of the instruments used for TSLEs. In this study we reviewed 22 studies on developing instruments that measure teachers', students' and adult students' perceptions of learning environments enhanced by a certain type of technology. We conducted a review of all the instruments to propose a new framework conceptualizing technology-supported learning environments (TSLEs) for future instructional designs, and research on learning environments. This framework was also confirmed with the literature on learning theories. The framework consists of six dimensions: technical, content, cognitive, metacognitive, social, and affective. We found that the studies took more into consideration the technical, cognitive and social dimensions, and less the content, metacognitive, and affective dimensions. Moreover, usability in the technical dimension, relevance in the content dimension, inquiry learning in the cognitive dimension, student autonomy in the metacognitive dimension, and teacher support in the social dimension are the salient features most often investigated in TSLEs. The results provide insights into an overview of the instruments used for TSLEs, implications for the instructional design of TSLEs, and trends in the current and future research on perceptions of TSLEs.

Mishra and Koehler’s (2006) framework for technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) is one of the most well-received and widely researched theoretical frameworks for technology integration in the classrooms. Chai et al. (2013) recent review found that more than 70 articles about TPACK have been published between 2003 and 2011 within the Scopus database. A website dedicated to TPACK research (http://tpack.org/) has accumulated more than 450 articles. The SSCI-listed journals have also published 134 articles on TPACK as of May 2015. As an analytical and creative framework, TPACK research can potentially generate deeper knowledge construction about ICT integration among researchers and educators. It could be refined, expanded, and improved upon to account for more variables that shape, empower, or constrain the development of ICT use in education (Chai et al. 2013; Voogt et al. 2013). Building upon Shulman’s (1986) model for pedagogical content knowledge, Mishra and Koehler (2006) added the dimension of technological knowledge and demonstrated how various kinds of teacher knowledge can be derived from the integration of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge. These integrated forms of knowledge are pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), technological content knowledge (TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK), and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). Together with technological knowledge (TK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), and content knowledge (CK), these seven kinds of knowledge make up the TPACK framework. While this framework provides specifications for the kinds of teacher knowledge involved during technology integration, how teachers, educators, and researchers can create more technological pedagogical content knowledge need to be further unpacked. Tee and Lee (2011) have aptly positioned generating TPACK as a knowledge creation endeavor and Kramarski and Michalsky (2010) have found it necessary to support pre-service teachers’ metacognitive self-regulation as they create TPACK through design. The creation of knowledge is a complex matter and coupled with the situated nature of TPACK (Mishra and Koehler 2006); further theorizing of the epistemic nature and processes involved in creating TPACK are needed. Specifically, the TPACK framework specifies what teachers need to integrate technology but not how the process can be improved (Cox and Graham 2009). On the other hand, there is much emphasis on the use of technology to support pedagogical improvements, especially the kinds of pedagogies that support students to foster twenty-first century competencies (ISTE 2007; P21, 2007). Voogt and Roblin (2012) have identified ICT-based learning as a common element across all twenty-first century learning frameworks they have reviewed. ICT could be used as a cognitive tool, metacognitive tool, and epistemic tool to support critical thinking, creative and inventive thinking and authentic problem solving, which are also common elements of twenty-first century learning. Yet, there is still a lack of understanding about how the seven TPACK constructs are being applied by teachers as they formulate technology-integrated lessons to promote twenty-first century learning & Joyce Hwee Ling Koh joyce.koh@nie.edu.sg

Background:The conceptions of learning have a deep effect on the learning process, and accordingly on learning outcomes. Some researchers emphasize that conceptions of learning are domain-dependent and there should be more research in different domains (e.g. science, literature) to enhance students’ understanding of conceptions of learning science.Purpose:The purpose of this research was to examine and compare science-major and literature-major students’ conceptions of learning science (COLS). Also, gender differences in COLS were examined for two majors.Sample:The sample for this study comprised of 503 high school students in 10th, 11th, and 12th grades (244 females, 259 males) in a district of Karaman in Turkey.Design and methods:The questionnaire, the Conceptions of Learning Science (COLS), developed by Lee, Johanson, and Tsai, was used to identify students’ COLS. The data obtained via the questionnaire were analyzed by means of SPSS 15.0 statistical software. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analys...

This study aims to disclose how eye-tracking technology has been applied to studies of learning, and what eye movement measures have been used for investigations by reviewing studies that have employed the eye-tracking approach. A total of 81 papers including 113 studies were selected from the Social Sciences Citation Index database from 2000 to 2012. Content analysis showed that eye movements and learning were studied under the following seven themes: patterns of information processing, effects of instructional design, reexamination of existing theories, individual differences, effects of learning strategies, patterns of decision making, and conceptual development. As for eye-tracking measurements, the most often used indices were temporal measures, followed by count and spatial measures, although the choice of measures was often motivated by the specific research question. Research development trends show that the use of the eye-tracking method has proliferated recently. This study concludes that the eye-tracking method provides a promising channel for educational researchers to connect learning outcomes to cognitive processes.

The main purpose of this study was to concurrently investigate Taiwanese high-school students' and their science teachers' conceptions of learning science (COLS) and conceptions of science assessment (COSA). A total of 1,048 Taiwanese high-school students and their 59 science teachers were invited to fill out two questionnaires assessing their COSA and COLS. The main results indicated that, first, although a handful of different patterns occurred, students and teachers were found to have similar COLS–COSA patterns. In general, students and teachers with COSA as reproducing knowledge and rehearsing tended to possess lower-level COLS, such as learning science as memorizing, testing, and calculating and practicing. In contrast, if students and teachers viewed science assessment as improving learning and problem-solving, they would be prone to regard science learning as increase of knowledge, applying, and understanding and seeing in a new way. However, the students' conceptions did not align with those of th...

Background and purpose : Knowing how students learn physics is a central goal of physics education. The major purpose of this study is to examine the strength of the predictive power of students’ epistemic views and conceptions of learning in terms of their approaches to learning in physics. Sample, design and method : A total of 279 Taiwanese high school students ranging from 15 to 18 years old participated in this study. Three questionnaires for assessing high school students’ epistemic views on physics, conceptions of learning physics and approaches to learning physics were developed. Step-wise regression was performed to examine the predictive power of epistemic views on physics and conceptions of learning physics in terms of their approaches to learning physics. Results and conclusion: The results indicated that, in general, compared to epistemic views on physics, conceptions of learning physics are more powerful in predicting students’ approaches to learning physics in light of the regression models...

Classroom assessment is a critical aspect of teaching and learning. In this paper, Taiwanese high school students’ conceptions of science assessment and the relationship between their conceptions of science assessment and of science learning were investigated. The study used both qualitative and quantitative methods. First, 60 students were interviewed regarding their conceptions of science assessment. From these interviews, a survey was developed, validated, and used with 914 students to quantitatively examine the same question. Third, 224 students were surveyed to determine the relationship between their conceptions of both science assessment and science learning. Using the phenomenographic method, the first study revealed six categories of conceptions of science assessment: reproducing knowledge, rehearsing, accountability to learning, improving learning, problem solving, and critical judgment, which seem to reveal the surface, summative, and formative purposes of assessment, respectively. The second study, based on what the high school students reported about science assessment, resulted in the use of the Conceptions of Science Assessment questionnaire, which confirmed the second-order analysis (surface, summative, and formative) of the purposes of science assessment. In the third study, the relationships between high school students’ conceptions of science assessment and of learning science were revealed. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed 97:244–270, 2013

This study investigates the relationships between students' perceptions and their online behaviors after they were engaged in collaborative knowledge building activities for social studies. One hundred and seventy seven Singapore primary three and primary four students participated in this study and the results show that when interpreting students' collaborative knowledge building, their perceptions about knowledge play an important role. Students who possess a questioning attitude about the knowledge from text books or experts are likely to search for more available audio-visual resources.

The application of information and communication technology in instruction is highly emphasized in the contemporary education of science teachers. This paper hence aims to explore science teachers’ perceptions of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) addressing teachers’ perceptions of the affordances of technology application in instruction. A total of 222 pre- and in-service science teachers in Singapore were surveyed. Structural equation models analysis was utilized to examine the model of TPACK involving the seven factors of technological knowledge (TK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), content knowledge (CK), technological content knowledge (TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), as well as synthesized knowledge of technology, pedagogy, and content (TPC). The results confirm the seven-factor model and indicate that the science teachers’ perceived TPC significantly and positively correlated with all the other TPACK factors. This paper further reveals the relationships between the science teachers’ perceptions of TPACK and their demographic characteristics such as teaching experience, gender, and age. The findings indicate that female science teachers perceive higher self-confidence in pedagogical knowledge but lower self-confidence in technological knowledge than males. Further, female in-service science teachers’ perceptions of TK, TPK, TCK, and TPC significantly and negatively correlate with their age.

The present study was a follow‐up to Tsai and Wen’s (2005) earlier research, in which 802 articles published in the International Journal of Science Education, Science Education, and the Journal of Research in Science Teaching from 1998 to 2002 were analysed in terms of author’s nationality, research type, and research topic. In the present study a total of 869 papers published in the three journals from 2003 to 2007 were analysed, and the results were compared with those of Tsai and Wen. Moreover, this study also identified 31 highly‐cited papers published during 1998–2002 and 20 highly‐cited papers published during 2003–2007. The results showed that authors from countries other than the four major English‐speaking countries (i.e., the USA, the UK, Australia, and Canada) published an increasing number of articles in the past decade. During these five years (2003–2007), science educators showed relatively more interest in research topics involving the context of student learning. Besides, science educator...

Educational researchers have suggested that the tension between the learner‐centred and teacher‐centred pedagogies represents a real classroom issue that influences teaching and learning. This issue may be particularly significant in East‐Asian countries such as Taiwan due to some cultural influences. For example, teacher authority is highly valued in the culture. Accordingly, the present study aims to develop a questionnaire—the Teacher Authority Survey (TAS), with actual and preferred versions—to explore students’ perceptions/preferences regarding teacher authority in the earth science course. The relationships among students’ perceptions/preferences for teacher authority, learning attitudes, and learning achievements were investigated. Six hundred and seventeen Taiwanese high school students were administered the TAS, the earth science attitudinal questionnaire, and achievement assessment. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the TAS developed in this study has satisfactory ...

Research in the area of educational technology has claimed that Web technology has driven online pedagogy such that teachers need to know how to use Web technology to assist their teaching. This study provides a framework for understanding teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W), while integrating Web technology into their pedagogical practice. Furthermore, contemporary educational researchers have highlighted the significance of teachers’ self-efficacy, conceptualized as the teachers’ perceptions of their own competence at teaching, and related to instructional strategies as well as teaching effectiveness. The major purpose of this study was to investigate teachers’ perceived self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W. This study aimed to develop a new questionnaire, namely the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W) Survey to explore teachers’ self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W, and additionally to assess their attitudes toward Web-based instruction. The participants in this study were 558 teachers from elementary school to high school level in Taiwan. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the TPCK-W survey developed in this study has satisfactory validity and reliability characteristics. The results indicate a lack of general knowledge about Web-related pedagogy amongst the teachers surveyed. The correlations between teachers’ self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W, their attitudes regarding Web-based instruction, and their background variables were also examined. Correlations were found between self-efficacy and positive attitudes to web-based instruction. Older and more experienced teachers were found to have lower levels of self-efficacy with respect to TPCK-W, though teachers with more experience of using the web (including for instruction) had higher levels of self-efficacy with respect to TPCK-W.

Previous research has established a close link between students' conceptions of learning and approaches to learning. Until recently, only a few quantitative studies have investigated the relationship between high school students' conceptions of learning science and the approaches they adopt to learning science. This study sought to address this gap in the literature by assessing these possible relationships empirically through the development of two questionnaires: The Conceptions of Learning Science (COLS) questionnaire and the Approaches to Learning Science (ALS) questionnaire. Four hundred and seventy-four Taiwanese high school students were administered the COLS questionnaire and the ALS questionnaire. Results were entered into a structural equation model to elicit structural relations between students' conceptions of and their approaches to learning science. Overall, findings revealed that students holding constructivist conceptions of learning science tended to employ deep approaches to learning science. Conceptions of learning science such as “testing” and “calculate and practice” were also found to have effects on the surface approaches to learning science; the conceptions of learning science as “applying” and “understanding and seeing in a new way” had noticeable effects on deep approaches to learning science. This study employed quantitative methods to confirm further the structural relations existing between conceptions of learning science and the motives and strategies employed in learning science. Implications for implementing the study's findings into the context of the real-world classroom are discussed. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 92:191–220, 2008.

This paper explores high school students' and teachers' preferences towards constructivist Internet‐based learning environments. The study proposes a framework, including two dimensions and five aspects, to illustrate the features of the Internet‐based learning environments. Based upon this framework, the Constructivist Internet‐based learning environment survey improvement (CILESI) was developed, which includes the scales of ease of use, multiple sources, student negotiation, reflective thinking, critical judgement and epistemological awareness. Questionnaire responses gathered from 630 high school students in Taiwan suggested that the CILESI showed adequate reliability in assessing students' preferences. Male students placed more emphasis on the student negotiation, critical judgement and epistemological awareness enhanced by the Internet‐based learning environments than female students did. In addition, the teachers of the sampled students (n = 78) were also surveyed by CILESI. The teachers tended to e...

Effects of dietary vitamin C (l-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate-Mg, C2MP-Mg) on growth, tissue copper (Cu) accumulation, and haemocyte superoxide anion production of juvenile grass shrimp, Penaeus monodon, fed with either adequate or high (8 x adequate) dietary Cu were studied. Three experimental diets were used: basal diet supplemented with adequate levels of both C2MP-Mg (40 mg kg diet(-1)) and Cu (20mg kg diet(-1)) (NC-NCu); basal diet supplemented with adequate C2MP-Mg and high Cu (8 x adequate) (NC-HCu); and basal diet supplemented with high C2MP-Mg (5 x adequate) and high Cu (HC-HCu). These were each fed to triplicate groups of shrimp (mean initial weight: 0.29+/-0.01 g) for 8 weeks. Highest (P< 0.01) weight gain, feed efficiency (FE) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) were observed in shrimp fed NC-NCu diet, intermediate in shrimp fed HC-HCu diet, and lowest in shrimp fed NC-HCu diet. Cu concentrations in hepatopancreas, muscle and haemolymph were highest in shrimp fed NC-HCu diet, followed by shrimp fed HC-HCu diet, and lowest for shrimp fed NC-NCu diet. Survival, total haemocyte count (THC) and intracellular superoxide anion (O-2) production were higher in shrimp fed NC-NCu diet than shrimp fed NC-HCu diet, whereas hepatosomatic index (HSI) was higher in shrimp fed NC-HCu diet than shrimp fed NC-NCu diet. However, all these parameters were similar in shrimp fed NC-NCu diet and shrimp fed HC-HCu diet. These data suggest that increase of dietary vitamin C improved haemocyte respiratory burst response and growth and prevented tissue Cu accumulation in P. monodon fed with high dietary Cu.

An 8-week feeding trial was conducted to determine the dietary copper (Cu) requirement and its effect on the non-specific immune responses of juvenile grass shrimp, Penaeus monodon. Purified diets with seven levels (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 80, 160 mg Cu kg diet(-1) of supplemental Cu were fed to P. monodon (mean initial weight 0.29 +/- 0.004 g). Each diet was fed to three replicate groups of shrimp. The rearing water contained 1.53 microg Cu 1(-1). Shrimp fed diets supplemented with 10 and 20 mg Cu kg diet(-1) had significantly (P0.01) greater weight gain, feed efficiency (FE) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) than those fed the unsupplemented control diet and diets supplemented withor = 40 mg Cu kg diet(-1). Whole body Cu concentration in shrimp generally increased as dietary Cu supplementation increased. Total haemocyte count (THC) was higher in shrimp fed diets supplemented with 10-30 mg Cu kg diet(-1) than shrimp fed the unsupplemented control diet and diets supplemented withor = 40 mg Cu kg diet(-1). Intracellular superoxide anion (O2-) production ratios were significantly higher in shrimp fed diets supplemented with 10-30 mg Cu kg diet(-1) than shrimp fed the diet supplemented with 160 mg Cu kg diet(-1). Analysis by polynomial regression of weight gain percent, FE and by linear regression of the whole-body Cu retention of shrimp indicated that the adequate dietary Cu concentration in growing P. monodon is about 15-21 mg Cu kg diet (-1). The immune indicators suggest that an adequate dietary Cu concentration for non-specific immune responses in P. monodon is about 10-30 mg Cu kg diet(-1).

Classrooms of the 21st century are complex systems. They support diverse learners from varied contexts and function in a “messy” bricolage of policy contexts. This complexity is also evident in the nature of teaching and learning deployed in these classrooms. There is also, in current contexts, a general expectation that teachers will support students to construct, rather than simply receive knowledge. This process of constructing knowledge requires a focus on critical thinking in complex social and real world contexts (see also Elen & Clarebout, 2001; Yang, Chang & Hsu 2008). Critical thinking, which involves the identification and evaluation of multiple perspectives when making decisions, is a process of knowing – a tool of wisdom (Kuhn & Udell, 2001). Schommer-Aikens, Bird and Bakken (2010) refer to classrooms that encourage critical thinking as “epistemologically based” in which “the teacher encourages his/her students to look for connections among concepts within the text, with their prior knowledge, and with concepts found in the world beyond themselves” (p. 48).

Previous studies have shown significant associations between students' epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning. By extending the findings of these studies, the present study aimed to investigate the relations between science-major undergraduate students' scientific epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning science. The participants were 315 undergraduate students majoring in science-related departments in Taiwan. All of them responded to the Scientific Epistemological Beliefs survey (Conley, Pintrich, Vekiri, & Harrison, 2004) and the Approaches to Learning Science questionnaire (Lee, Johanson, & Tsai, 2008). The path analysis results achieved with the structural equation modeling technique indicated some significant relations between scientific epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning science. A surface strategy for learning science was found to be negatively predicted by the maturation of beliefs about the source and certainty of scientific knowledge. Beliefs about justification of scientific knowledge appear to positively contribute to deep strategies. Moreover, the results reveal that a deep motive for learning science could be positively affected by beliefs about the development and justification of scientific knowledge. In particular, beliefs about justification of scientific knowledge appear to have positive effects on mixed motives for learning science. Some of the findings are interpreted through a socio-cultural lens.

We examined the physiological (hemolymph glucose, lactate, and lipid) and innate non-specific immune responses (total hemocyte count (THC), phenoloxidase (PO) activity, respiratory bursts (release of superoxide anion, O(2)(-)) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity) to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) that were individually injected with 0.1, 0.5, and 1 ng g(-1) ferritin. Results showed that the THC, PO activity, and respiratory bursts of L. vannamei obviously increased (p0.05) 12 h after being injected with any dose of ferritin. However, the THC, PO activity, and respiratory bursts of L. vannamei that had received 0.5 and 1 ng g(-1) ferritin were significant higher than those of the other groups at 36-60, 60-72, and 36-60 h, respectively. SOD activities of L. vannamei 12 h after receiving 0.1, 0.5, and 1 ng g(-1) ferritin were significantly higher than those receiving saline. L. vannamei injected with ferritin at any dose maintained lower glucose, lactate, and lipid levels in response to WSSV challenge after 12-36, 24-48, and 36-60 h, respectively. The survival of shrimp that had received 0.5 and 1 ng g(-1) ferritin was significantly higher than that of shrimp that received saline and of control shrimp after 72 h. The ferritin messenger RNA transcripts of shrimp that had received 0.5 and 1 ng g(-1) ferritin were significantly higher than that of shrimp that received saline after 36 h. It was, therefore, concluded that the immune ability and resistance against WSSV infection increased in L. vannamei that had received0.5 ng g(-1) ferritin. Ferritin does play important roles in the innate immunity of the white shrimp. We observed higher SOD activities of L. vannamei that had received 0.1, 0.5, and 1 ng ferritin after 12 h than those that had received only saline (control), and the high SOD expression remained at the same levels even after 72 h of treatment.

A feeding trial was conducted to determine the dietary vitamin E (DL-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, dl-alpha-TOA) requirement and its effect on the non-specific immune responses of juvenile grass shrimp, Penaeus monodon. Purified diets with eight levels (0, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 400 mg vitamin E kg diet-1) of supplemental dl-alpha-TOA were fed to P. monodon (mean initial weight 0.29 +/- 0.01 g) for eight weeks. Each diet was fed to three replicate groups of shrimp. Weight gains and total haemocyte count (THC) were higher (P0.05) in shrimp fed diets supplemented with 75 and 100 mg vitamin E kg diet-1 than in shrimp fed diets supplemented with/= 50 mg vitamin E kg diet-1. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was higher in shrimp fed diets supplemented with 50-200 mg vitamin E kg diet-1 than in shrimp fed diets supplemented with/= 25 and 400 mg vitamin E kg diet-1. Vitamin E concentrations in the hepatopancreas and muscle of the shrimp were increased as the dietary vitamin E supplementation level was increased up to 200 mg vitamin E kg diet-1. Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values in the hepatopancreas and muscle were generally decreased as the dietary vitamin E supplementation level increased. Analysis by polynomial regression of weight gain, THC and hepatopancreatic vitamin E concentration of the shrimp indicated that a level of 85-89 mg vitamin E kg diet-1 is required for maximal growth and non-specific immune responses of P. monodon and that 179 mg vitamin E kg diet-1 is required to maximise tissue vitamin E concentration.

Effects of L-ascorbic acid (AA) and its four derivatives, namely L-ascorbyl-2-sulfate (C2S), L-ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate (C2PP), L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate-Na (C2MP-Na) and L-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate-Mg (C2MP-Mg) on the immune responses of juvenile grass shrimp, Penaeus monodon , were studied. The vitamin C deprived diet together with diets supplemented with either adequate or high (five times adequate) levels of AA, C2S, C2PP, C2MP-Na and C2MP-Mg were each fed to triplicate groups of shrimp (mean initial weight: 0·37±0·01 g) for 8 weeks. Significantly ( P 0·01) higher weight gain (WG), feed efficiency (FE), survival, total haemocyte count (THC), superoxide anion (O−2) production ratio and phenoloxidase (PO) activity were observed in shrimp fed diets supplemented with adequate and high levels of ascorbate than shrimp fed the vitamin C deprived diet, regardless of the ascorbate source. Among the ascorbate sources, shrimp fed C2MP-Mg and C2PP containing diets had higher THC than shrimp fed AA, C2S and C2MP-Na containing diets, regardless of the supplementation level. Shrimp fed adequate levels of C2MP-Mg and C2PP and high levels of C2MP-Mg containing diets had higher O−2 production ratios than shrimp fed AA and C2S containing diets. Shrimp fed adequate levels of C2MP-Mg and C2PP and high levels of C2PP containing diets had higher PO activity than shrimp fed AA, C2S and C2MP-Na containing diets. These data suggest that dietary ascorbate enhances immune responses in P. monodon and different ascorbate sources may affect the immune responses differently.