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Rigidoporus microporus is the fungus accountable for the white root rot disease that is detrimental to the rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis. The pathogenicity mechanism of R. microporus and the identity of the fungal proteins and metabolites involved during the infection process remain unclear. In this study, the protein and metabolite profiles of two R. microporus isolates, Segamat (SEG) and Ayer Molek (AM), were investigated during an in vitro interaction with H. brasiliensis. The isolates were used to inoculate H. brasiliensis clone RRIM 2025, and mycelia adhering to the roots of the plant were collected for analysis. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) images acquired confirms the hyphae attachment and colonization of the mycelia on the root of the H. brasiliensis clones after 4 days of inoculation. The protein samples were subjected to 2-DE analysis and analyzed using MALDI-ToF MS/MS, while the metabolites were extracted using methanol and analyzed using LC/MS-QTOF. Based on the differential analyses, upregulation of proteins that are essential for fungal evolution such as malate dehydrogenase, fructose 1,6-biphosphate aldolase, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase hints an indirect role in fungal pathogenicity, while metabolomic analysis suggests an increase in acidic compounds which may lead to increased cell wall degrading enzyme activity. Bioinformatics analyses revealed that the carbohydrate and amino acid metabolisms were prominently affected in response to the fungal pathogenicity. In addition to that, other pathways that were significantly affected include “Protein Ubiquitination Pathway,” Unfolded Protein Response,” “HIFα Signaling,” and “Sirtuin Signaling Pathway.” The identification of responsive proteins and metabolites from this study promotes a better understanding of mechanisms underlying R. microporus pathogenesis and provides a list of potential biological markers for early recognition of the white root rot disease.

White root rot (WRR) disease caused by Rigidoporus microporus is a major disease affecting tropical rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) and some agricultural crops throughout the world. In Malaysia, rubber industry is an important revenue as natural rubber for export and domestic consumption. The objectives of this study were to determine WRR disease prevalence and characterise R. microporus isolates collected from different regions in Malaysia using cultural and molecular characteristics. During July 2017 to May 2018, diseased samples showing WRR symptoms such as presence of basidiocarps and rhizomorphs in five states of Malaysia including Kedah (Baling), Kelantan (FELCRA Machang and Smallholder in Machang), Perak (Ipoh) and Selangor (Sungai Buloh and UPM Serdang), Sarawak (Bintulu) were obtained. In the field observation, all sampling areas were infected by the root rot disease. Findings revealed that field disease incidence was in the range of 5–40% based on random sampling. The collected R. microporus isolates were pure white and displayed fluffy mycelial growth when cultured on malt extract agar (MEA) medium. For molecular identification, BLASTn analysis showed 98–100% identical to existing reference sequences in the GenBank database. All 27 isolates of R. microporus were characterised based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and Beta-tubulin (β-tubulin) gene sequences data. Phylogenetic tree analyses of R. microporus isolates formed two major clades, i.e. Asian and African clades. There was also no clear geographical origin structuring observed within the Asian clade. However, phylogenetic analysis of Beta-tubulin (β-tubulin) gene region revealed distinct geographical origin amongst 27 local isolates. The outcomes of this study provide useful information to improve the existing disease control strategy, hence improving the rubber production in Malaysia.

The concern of oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) utilization in the rubber field that potential to be a host of white root disease needs to be deeply investigated. The objective of this study was to assess the bacteria on the surface of OPEFB that able to inhibit the growth of R. microporus fungi. The antagonistic assay of eight isolates of bacteria against R. microporus fungi was conducted in the Plant Protection Laboratory of Sungei Putih Research Centre. The isolates were isolated from the surface of OPEFB applied in the rubber field. Nutrient agar (NA) was employed in the isolation and purification of bacteria. The antagonistic assay was carried out in vitro using the dual culture method. The observation was performed on 2, 4, 6, and 8 days after incubation (DAI). The result indicated that the eight isolates have varied in inhibition ability of R. Microporus fungi. The initial inhibition was started since 2 DAI particularly in the isolates B2, B3, B4, and B7. The percentage of inhibition were 30%, 60%, 65% dan 69% respectively. Until 8 HSI, the isolates B2, B3, B4, B6, B7, and B8 were still inhibiting the growth of R. microporus fungi > 80%. The isolates B3 and B4 showed the best performance in fungi inhibition with the percentage > 95%. Whereas, the ability of inhibition of the isolates B1 and B5 were very low as < 50%. The existence of such antagonistic bacteria perhaps led to OPEB was not role as the host of white root disease while applied in the rubber field

Rigidoporus microporus is a causal agent of white root rot disease of rubber trees. Chemical control is commonly used against this disease but it is expensive, causes environmental pollution and fungal resistance. Silicon is a beneficial element which enhances plant growth and disease resistance but mostly present in insoluble forms. Silicate solubilizing bacteria (SSB) can solubilize the insoluble forms of silicates. This study aimed to screen and evaluate potential SSB with solubilizing activity, plant growth promoting traits and antagonistic activity against R. microporus. Bacteria were isolated from healthy rubber plantation area. Five out of 26 bacterial isolates which showed the ability to solubilize silicate on magnesium trisilicate media were screened in vitro for growth promoting traits and production of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), siderophores and hydrolytic enzymes. The investigation of antagonistic activity against R. microporus was conducted using dual culture test. The potential SSB isolates were identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The isolate UPMSSB7 showed the highest solubilization of silicate, phosphate (P) and potassium (K) (solubilizing index 4.67, 2.52 and 2.61, respectively). It also showed highest silicate solubilization at 5 and 10 days (9.76 and 11.55 mg L−1, respectively) in liquid assay. It strongly inhibited the growth of R. microporus with percent inhibition of radial growth of 57.24% and produced highest IAA (19.96 µg mL−1). All the isolates produced siderophores. Two isolates, UPMSSB7 and UPMSSB10, were able to secrete cellulase enzyme, but pectinase was produced by UPMSSB7 only. The isolate UPMSSB7 was identified as Enterobacter sp. This isolate was found to be the most potent antagonistic isolate against R. microporus and simultaneously the most efficient one in solubilizing insoluble silicates, as well as P and K.

Rigidoporus microporus is the causal agent of rubber white root disease (WRD). Control of this is commonly carried out by chemical treatment. The use of tolerant rootstocks may present an effective method to lessen its impact. The screening of rubber rootstocks for tolerance of WRD was investigated by both defense-related enzymes and gene expression, and assessment of disease symptoms.Two recommended clones in Thailand (RRIT251 and RRIT408) and RRIM623 (Malaysian clone) were screened and compared with susceptible clones (RRIM600 and BPM24) and tolerant clone (PB5/51) by inoculating young rubber seedling with R. microporus. The expression of PRs and PAL were analyzed at 0, 1, 3, 5, and 7 days post inoculation (dpi) along with the defense-related enzyme activities. Based on observed transcriptional level of PRs and PAL genes, CHI, PAL, and POD enzyme activities, and also evidence from WRD symptom assessment in the field, we concluded that PB 5/51 had the best tolerance with the lowest disease incidence, high PAL and POD enzyme activities, with the next best being RRIM 623 and RRIT 251, respectively. Meanwhile, BPM 24, RRIM 600, and RRIT 408 clones are moderately susceptible to WRD. The study introduces new possibilities for the control of WRD using alternative rubber rootstock clones.

Five new lanostanoid triterpenes were isolated from the extract of R. microporus. Three of the metabolites (1-3) present a Δ8,9 skeleton with an uncommon keto functionality at C-1. Another compound (4) has an unprecedented rearranged skeleton in which methyl-19 was transposed to C-1, with conjugated double bonds at Δ1-10 and Δ8-9. All of the compounds have hydroxylated or furane-cyclized side-chains. The structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods, and the absolute configuration of the hydroxyl-bearing carbon in the side chain of compound 5 was established in silico. The metabolites were evaluated for their antifungal activity and the bioactivity as agonist/antagonists of the liver X receptors (LXRs). Compound 4 presents antifungal activity and compounds 3 and 5 are the agonists of LXRs.

Exploration and Characterization of Biological Agents Bacteria from Imperata cylindrica for Controlling Rigidoporus microporusWhite root disease caused by Rigidoporus microporus is an important disease in rubber plantation. This pathogen causes damage to roots, thus adversely affect plant growth and productivity of rubber plantation. Therefore controling of this pathogen is important to do. The objective of this research was to obtain biological agents bacteria from the various parts of alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica) which have inhibitory activity against the growth of R. microporus The research was conducted through exploration of biological agents from the various parts of alang-alang, antibiosis activity test, and characterization of potential isolates. Based on antibiosis activity test, seven isolates (Rph 7, Rph 8, Rph 15 Rph 17, 15, E47, and isolate 47) showed antibiosis activity against R. microporus. Suppression activity of R. microporus growth by seventh of potential isolates ranged between 26.7-58.9%. The highest inhibition was demonstrated by isolate 47 suspected leaf endophytic bacteria. Seventh of potential isolates are Gram-positive bacterial that can form spores. The biological agen’s bacterial dominated by isolates from the reeds rhizosphere. This result indicates that rhizosphere is a potentialy source in the exploration of biological agents. In addition, R. microporus is a soil-borne pathogen which colonizes the roots therefore exploration from rhizosphere samples allows obtaining potential biological agents.

Latex production from Hevea brasiliensis rubber tree is the second most important commodity in Malaysia, but this industry is threatened by the white root rot disease (WRD) caused by Rigidoporus microporus that leads to considerable latex yield loss and tree death. This study aimed to characterize and compare the virulence of five R. microporus isolates obtained from infected rubber trees located at different states in Malaysia. These isolates were subjected to morphological and molecular characterization for species confirmation and pathogenicity test for the determination of virulence level. BLAST search showed that the ITS sequences of all the pathogen isolates were 99% identical to R. microporus isolate SEG (accession number: MG199553) from Malaysia. The pathogenicity test of R. microporus isolates conducted in a nursery with 24 seedlings per isolate showed that isolate RL21 from Sarawak has developed the most severe above- and below-ground symptoms of WRD on the rubber clone RRIM600 as host. Six months after being infected with R. microporus, RL21 was evaluated with the highest average of disease severity index of 80.52% for above- and below-ground symptoms, followed by RL22 (68.65%), RL20 (66.04%), RL26 (54.38%), and RL25 (43.13%). The in vitro growth condition tests showed that isolate RL21 of R. microporus has optimum growth at 25–30 °C, with the preference of weakly acidic to neutral environments (pH 6–7). This study revealed that different virulence levels are possessed among different R. microporus isolates even though they were isolated from the same host species under the same climate region. Taken together, field evaluation through visual observation and laboratory assays have led to screening of the most virulent isolate. Determination of the most virulent isolate in the present study is vital and shall be taken into consideration for the selection of suitable pathogen isolate in the development of more effective control measures in combating tenacious R. microporus.

Kegiatan pengabdian masyarakat berupa kegiatan Desa Binaan melalui program penerapan teknologi pembuatan formulasi Trichoderma virens endofit dalam formula tepung dilaksanakan di Kelompok Tani Lubuk Betuah, Pelimauan Jaya dan Anugrah di desa Teluk Merempan Kecamatan Mempura Kabupaten Siak. Tujuan kegiatan ini ialah peningkatan pengetahuan, keterampilan anggota kelompok tani dalam pembuatan formulasi Trichoderma virens endofit dalam formula tepung dan Menghasilkan biofungisida berbentuk tepung yang ramah lingkungan sehingga dapat meningkatkan produksi dan kualitas latek, disamping dapat meringankan beban petani terhadap kebutuhan pupuk. Dari kegiatan ini disimpuilkan beberapa hal, yakni : sosialisasi program teknologi pengendalian R. microporus pada kelompok tani sasaran 100% belum mengetahui penggunaan T. virens sebagai biofungisida. Pelatihan pembuatan biofungisida tepung dan cara aplikasi biofungisida untuk pengendalian R. microporus 50% dari kelompok tani sasaran mempunyai keinginan untuk menggunakan biofungisida T. virens. Pendampingan pembuatan biofungisida tepung seluruh peserta pelatihan dapat membuat biofungisida tepung. Kegiatan tahun berikutnya dilakukan monitoring dan evaluasi hasil pengendalian R. microporus dan produksi masal biofungisida tepung untuk meningkatkan pendapatan petani karet.

15 p.-6 fig.-3 tab., Fungal plant pathogens remain a serious threat to the sustainable agriculture and forestry, despite the extensive efforts undertaken to control their spread. White root rot disease is threatening rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations throughout South and Southeast Asia and Western Africa, causing tree mortality and severe yield losses. Here, we report the complete genome sequence of the basidiomycete fungus Rigidoporus microporus, a causative agent of the disease. Our phylogenetic analysis confirmed the position of R. microporus among the members of Hymenochaetales, an understudied group of basidiomycetes. Our analysis further identified pathogen’s genes with a predicted role in the decay of plant cell wall polymers, in the utilization of latex components and in interspecific interactions between the pathogen and other fungi. We also detected putative horizontal gene transfer events in the genome of R. microporus. The reported first genome sequence of a tropical rubber tree pathogen R. microporus should contribute to the better understanding of how the fungus is able to facilitate wood decay and nutrient cycling as well as tolerate latex and utilize resinous extractives., This project was financially supported by Academy of Finland (Grant No. 307580). The work conducted by the U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, a DOE Office of Science User Facility, is supported by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. A.T.M., S.C., F.J.R.D. and A.S. were funded by the EnzOx2 (BBI-PPP-2015-2-720297; www.enzox2.eu) EU project, and the GENOBIOREF (BIO2017-86559-R) project of the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness,co-financed by FEDER funds.

The objectives of this study were to screen chitinase producing microorganisms to inhibit Rigidoporus microporus (white root rot) and to analyze the bioactive compounds produced by the selected strain using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS). A total of 148 microbial isolates were screened from different sources such as composts and soils for chitinolytic activity by colloidal chitin hydrolysis, and then tested for inhibition by dual culture technique. The result showed that 78 isolates exhibited inhibitory activity against R. microporus. Among them, the fungal strain F14 showed the most chitinase production. It was identified as Trichoderma asperellum based on 18S rDNA. T. asperellum F14 was then cultured in 1/5 potato dextrose broth for 28 days to obtain the bioactive compounds using various type of solvents including methanol, n-butanol, ethyl acetate and hexane. Crude ethyl acetate extract displayed the highest inhibitory activity against many plant pathogens such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora, Xanthomonas oryzae, Aspergillus parasiticus, Fusarium culmorum, F. merismoides, F. oxysporum f. sp. gladioli, R. microporus, Verticillium albo-atrum and V. dahliae. The GC–MS analysis of the bioactive compounds produced by T. asperellum F14 showed that they were composed of many known bioactivities. This study indicates that T. asperellum F14 can be used to inhibit white root rot disease and other plant diseases.

The need for effective compounds to combat antimicrobial resistance and biofilms which play important roles in human infections continues to pose a major health challenge. Seven previously undescribed acyclic diterpenes linked to isocitric acid by an ether linkage, microporenic acids A-G (1-7), were isolated from the cultures of a hitherto undescribed species of the genus Microporus (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) originating from Kenya's Kakamega forest. Microporenic acids D and E (4 and 5) showed antimicrobial activity against a panel of Gram positive bacteria and a yeast, Candida tenuis. Moreover, microporenic acids A and B (1 and 2) demonstrated dose-dependent inhibition of biofilm formation by Staphylococcus aureus. Compound 1 further showed significant activity against Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus preformed biofilms.

Rigidoporus microporus, Ganoderma philippii,andPhellinus noxiusare root rot rubber diseases and these fungi should be kept under control with environmentally safe compounds from the plant sources. Thus, an antifungal compound isolated fromCatharanthus roseuswas screened for its effectiveness in controlling the growth of these fungi. The antifungal compound isolated fromC. roseusextract was determined through thin layer chromatography (TLC) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis. EachC. roseusof the DCM extracts was marked as CRD1, CRD2, CRD3, CRD4, CRD5, CRD6, and CRD7, respectively. TLC results showed that all of theC. roseusextracts peaked with red colour at Rf = 0.61 at 366 nm wavelength, except for CRD7. The CRD4 extract was found to be the most effective againstR. microporusandG. philippiiwith inhibition zones of 3.5 and 1.9 mm, respectively, compared to that of other extracts. These extracts, however, were not effective againstP. noxius.The CRD4 extract contained ursolic acid that was detected by NMR analysis and the compound could be developed as a biocontrol agent for controllingR. microporusandG. philippii.Moreover, little or no research has been done to study the effectiveness ofC. roseusin controlling these fungi.

One of the major diseases affecting Hevea brasiliensis is the white root rot caused by the fungus Rigidoporus microporus. Current treatment measures taken to control rubber diseases are highly dependent on chemical fungicides which pollute the environment and pose health hazards to workers. The utilisation of chitinolytic microorganisms for disease control is an attractive alternative. A total of 61 chitinolytic isolates were isolated from soil and tested for antagonism against R. microporus using dual culture assay. Out of the 61 chitinolytic microorganisms, 46 exhibited inhibition against R. microporus ranging from 3.67% to 85.65% with isolate SPSB 4-4 recording the highest percentage inhibition. Light microscopy observation revealed degradation of mycelium implying the hydrolysis of fungal cell wall by chitinase. Nine chitinolytic microorganisms which exhibited the highest percent inhibition were selected for dipped stick inhibition assay. All nine isolates inhibited the growth of R. microporus with percent inhibition ranging from 31.69% to 91.63% with isolate SPSB 4-4 exhibiting the highest percent inhibition. These nine isolates were sent for 16S rRNA gene sequencing for bacterial identification. The isolates were identified to be from the genus Pseudomonas, Burkholderia and Streptomyces. These chitinolytic microorganisms hold great potential to be developed as effective, environmentally friendly and worker-safe solution for crop protection.

White root disease caused by Rigidoporus microporus is an important disease of rubber tree and is very difficult to control. The ability of some herbaceous plant species to suppress inoculum potential and infection of R. microporus was studied in a pot trial. Nine species of herbaceous plants were examined, i.e. arrowroot (Marantha arundinacea), java curcumin (Curcuma xanthorrhiza), sansevieria (Sansevieria fasciata), Mallaca galangal (Alpinia malaccensis), greater galangal (Alpinia galanga), Indian shot (Canna indica), curcumin (Curcuma longa), wild taro (Colocasia esculenta), and water yam (Dioscorea alata). Pathogen’s inocula as mycelial colonizing rubber wood sticks were buried for 90 days in soil planted with tested plants. The results showed that formation of R. microporus rhizomorph in the soil was lower in pots planted with arrowroot, java cucurmin, sansevieria, Indian shot, and wild taro. All herbaceous plants, except sansevieria, caused suppression of inoculum viability and rhizomorph development. Further observation showed no colonization of rhizomorph nor necrosis of the root was found, except on Mallaca galangal and sansevieria.

Microporus pallidipennis (Reuter) Cydnus pallidipennis Reuter, 1883: 3. Material: ANGOLA: Alto Cuilo, Cacolo, 1&female;, 4.vi.1954 (L), Ang. No: 4127-11 (NMP 6 V); Dundo, Lunda, 2&female;, 16.viii.1955, A.B. Machado lgt. (NMP 6 V); Lobito, Dundo, 3&female;, 16.viii.1955, A.B. Machado lgt., Ang. No: 1695, Coll. A.B. Machado (NMP 6 V); Nzagi, Andrada, 1&female;, VIII.1952 – II.1953, A.B. Machado lg. (NMP 6 V); R. Lac Calundo, 105 km E. de Villa Luso (M+L), 1&female;, 25.xii.1954, Ang. No: 4563-29 (NMP 6V). MOZAMBIQUE: Mocambique, Pemba, 2&female;, VI.1979, 1 &female;, IX. 1979, leg. B. Pettersson (ZMLU). RSA: Südafrika, Mkuze Game Res., 27°36'S / 32°13'E, 2&male;, 29.xi.1995, leg. F. Koch (ZMHB); Natal, 2830 Cc, Weenen, Mooiplaats, 1&female;, 21.xi.1986, A.E. Whittington (NMP); Natal, Empangeni, 3&female;, 8.iv.1982 – 12.iv.1983, at light, P. E. Reavell (NMP); Natal, Ukulu River, 1&female;, 3.iv.1981, at light, P. Atkinson (NMP). TANZANIA: Tanganyika, Rukwa, Tumba, on light, 1&female;, 30.v.1950, 1&male;, 22.xi.1951, H.O. Backlund (ZMLU). ZAMBIA: Luangwa Valley S Game Reserve, Schultz Camp, 1&male;, 2&female;, 8–12.xii.1989, light trap in riverine bush, Coll.: P. E. Reavell (NMP). ZIMBABWE: Zimbabwe, Victoria Falls, 17°53'S / 25°49'E, 1&male;, 3&female;, 11.–13.xii.1993, leg. M. Uhlig (ZMHB). Distribution: New for Angola, RSA and Zimbabwe. Afrotropical. The records from Botswana by Krüger & Deckert (2016) are herewith confirmed., Published as part of Krüger, Andreas & Lis, Jerzy A., 2019, Notes on Afrotropical Cydnidae (Heteroptera) with emphasis on vehicle-mounted net samples and description of a new species from Liberia, West Africa, pp. 559-567 in Zootaxa 4559 (3) on page 565, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4559.3.6, http://zenodo.org/record/2627246, {"references":["Reuter, O. M. (1883) Ad cognitionem Heteropterorum. Oversigt af Finska Vetenskaps-Societetens Forhandlingar, 25, 1 - 43.","Kruger, A. & Deckert, J. (2016) True bugs (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) of Botswana- Bibliographical inventory and new records. Zootaxa, 4114 (1), 33 - 63. http: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4114.1.2"]}

Microporus lautipennis (Stål) Cydnus (Aethus) lautipennis Stål, 1858: 312. Material: ANGOLA: Nzagi, Andrada, 1&male;, VIII.1952 – II.1953, A.B. Machado lg. (NMP 6V); Tschikapa, Dundo, 1&male;, VII.1948, A.B. Machado lg., Ang. No: 8805, Coll. A.B. Machado (NMP 6 V). ETHIOPIA: Arsi, Assassa [=Asasa], 110 km S Assella, 1&female;, 10.xi.1988, 2350m, leg. S. Persson (ZMLU). GUINEA-BISSAU: Cacheu, Bula, 1&female;, 3.vi–31.vii.1992, leg. S. Persson (ZMLU). LIBERIA: Bong county, trips to/from Dam 12—LRU— Gengema—Yea Creek—Fahn Gbolo—Menla—Weadea—Bong town, 7&male;, 14&female;, 22.iii.–16.vi.1989, afternoonevening hours, leg. Garms. RSA: Natal, 2830 Cc, Weenen, Mooiplaats, 2&male;, 21.xi.1986, A.E. Whittington (NMP); Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Montrose—in garden, 2930 CB, 1&female;, 1&male;, 5.ii.1987, at light, J. G. H. Londt (NMP). SIERRA LEONE: Freetown, Cape Sierra Hotel, 13°17'W, 8°31'N, 1&female;, 19.xi.1993, loc. 2, at light 18–24; Lund University Sierra Leone Expedition 1993, leg. L. Cederholm—R. Danielsson—R. Hall (ZMLU). UGANDA: Nyabyeya, 01°40'N, 31°32'E, 1&female;, 24.ix.1997, 1160m, leg. Th. Wagner (ZMHB). Distribution: New for Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Uganda. Afrotropical. The records from Botswana by Krüger & Deckert (2016) are herewith confirmed., Published as part of Krüger, Andreas & Lis, Jerzy A., 2019, Notes on Afrotropical Cydnidae (Heteroptera) with emphasis on vehicle-mounted net samples and description of a new species from Liberia, West Africa, pp. 559-567 in Zootaxa 4559 (3) on page 564, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4559.3.6, http://zenodo.org/record/2627246, {"references":["Stal, C. (1858) Orthoptera och Hemiptera fran Sodra Afrika. Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps-akademiens forhandlingar, 15, 307 - 320.","Kruger, A. & Deckert, J. (2016) True bugs (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) of Botswana- Bibliographical inventory and new records. Zootaxa, 4114 (1), 33 - 63. http: // doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 4114.1.2"]}

Mushroom surveys and collections were conducted in the western and eastern forest areas in Cambodia, and then fungal biodiversity was analyzed by identifying mushrooms. One thousand and three hundreds eighty three specimens were identified by morphological and genetical characteristics, and were classified into 238 species, 160 genera, 52 families, 15 orders, and 3 phylums. The collected mushrooms were immersed in 70% ethyl alcohol for DNA extraction, and the rest of them were dried in the portable mushroom dryer for 12 hrs. Among these mushrooms, the genera Mycena (8.7%), Ganoderma (5.6%), Microporus (5.3%), Marasmius (4.2%), Marasmiellus (3.0%), Phellinus (2.5%), Trametes (2.5%), Hygrocybe (1.9%) and Pycnoporus (1.5%) were dominant. In the western Cambodia, 1,061 specimens were collected from Koh Kong forests, while 263 specimens were collected from the eastern Cambodia, Seima and Mondulkiri forests. Elevations of surveyed sites were ranged from 0 to 750 m above sea level. The number of species observed in the elevation of 251-500 m was the highest as compared to the other ranges of elevation. Daldinia concentrica, Microporus vernicipes, Microporus xanthopus, Pycnoporus coccineus, Stereum hirsutum, and Stereum ostrea were commonly distributed in all ranges of elevation, while the distribution of Ceratomyxa fruticulosa, Panus fulvus, Schizophyllum, Trametes versicolor, and Tyromyces chioneus were limited under 500 m. One hundred and forty one species including Amauroderma sp., Bjerkandera adusta, Trichaptum abietinum, and Tyromyces chioneus were collected only in Cardamom, while 20 species including Auricularia auricula-judae, Coriolopsis sanguinaria, Rigidoporus microporus, and Xylaria polymorpha were collected only in Seima. Ganoderma sp., Mycena sp., Marasmius sp., Microporus xanthopus, Phellinus sp., and Russula sp. were dominant species in both the western and eastern Cambodia. Species diversity indices in the eastern and western survey sites were 1.83 and 1.77, respectively, while evenness indices were 0.92 and 0.90. The species similarity index between two survey sites was 0.42.

The use of exotic species like teak for industry demands has increased over the last decades in Central America, however its vulnerability to decay by saprophytic fungi has not been well studied. Among these fungi, Rigidoporus spp. have been described as white rotters of dead hardwoods and conifers worldwide. In Costa Rica, R. microporus has been found growing on teak stumps. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of this white rot fungus on the chemical, mechanical and physical properties of teak wood from trees of different ages. Six and ten year old sapwood and heartwood samples were used in the assays. Severe anatomical damage and the highest weight and resistance losses were observed on 6 yr. old sapwood samples. There was an increase in the quantity of soluble materials in 1% NaOH (relative values) and lignin content in all the samples analyzed, after 3 months exposure and up to the end of the experiment. Mass loss reduction and increased resistance of wood to compressive strength parallel to the grain were related to both the type of wood and the age of the tree. Knowledge of the potential damage that this fungus can cause to teak wood might help in a better selection of wood and developing more effective protection measures against decay in the field or in construction wood.

White root rot disease caused by Rigidoporus microporus results in major economic loss to rubber plantation in all rubber growing countries including Malaysia. This glasshouse trial was conducted to explore the potential of single and co-inoculation of Enterobacter sp. UPMSSB7 and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus mosseae) with silicon for white root rot disease suppression and plant growth promotion of rubber seedlings. Plants were artificially infected with R. microporus using rubber wood blocks. The results revealed that co-inoculation with silicon significantly reduced the disease incidence and disease severity of foliar and root rot symptoms and also recorded the highest disease reduction compared to control after 24 weeks of artificial infection with R. microporus. The highest stem height, girth size, chlorophyll content, leaf area, shoot and root dry weight, root length, root volume and root surface area were achieved by co-inoculation with silicon. The co-inoculation with silicon also significantly improved silicon content in roots and shoots and leaf nutrient contents (N, P and K). The Enterobacter sp. population density, mycorrhizal spore density and root colonization were increased in co-inoculation with silicon treatment as compared to control and single inoculation treatments. From this study, it was concluded that co-inoculation of Enterobacter sp. and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi with silicon had potential to suppress Rigidoporus microporus and improve plant growth of rubber seedlings under glasshouse conditions.

White root disease is an important disease in rubber plants caused by the fungus Rigidoporus microporus. The severity of white root disease in smallholder rubber plantations is up to 15%. Various controlling technique has not been effectively eliminate this disease. To develop an integrated white root disease management, a comprehensive study including the ecology and rhizobial characteristic of rubber tree is needed. This study was aimed to describe the characteristics of rhizobacteria on healthy and infected rubber trees. The results showed that the population of antagonistic and non-fluoresence bacteria was higher in the rhizosphere of healthy rubber plants, vice versa. The observation of bacterial morphology showed that the bacterial community was more diverse in the rhizosphere of healthy rubber than the rhizosphere infected by R. microporus.

Objective. This study has investigated the antimicrobial activity of extracts of indigenous wild mushrooms against selected organisms. Methods. Thirty-five (35) indigenous wild mushrooms were collected from Arabuko-Sokoke and Kakamega National Reserve Forests, Kenya. All mushrooms were identified and their contents were extracted and screened for their antimicrobial activities against Escherichia coli (clinical isolate), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 13883), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (clinical isolate), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), MRSA (ATCC 33591), Candida albicans (clinical isolate), and Candida parapsilosis (ATCC 90018) using tetrazolium microtiter plate bioassay method. Results. Of the 35 tested mushroom extracts, extracts of three (3) mushrooms, namely, Trametes spp. (Arabuko-Sokoke forest), Trametes, and Microporus spp. (Kakamega forest), have shown promising antimicrobial activities against the tested organisms. The S. aureus (ATCC 25923), P. aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (ATCC 33591) were the most susceptible to chloroform extract of Trametes spp. collected from Arabuko-Sokoke forest. Of the tested organisms, S. aureus (ATCC 25923) was the most susceptible whereas E. coli was the most resistant organism to the hot water extract of Trametes spp. collected from Arabuko-Sokoke forest. Chloroform extract of Microporus spp. has shown the highest antibacterial activity against S. aureus (ATCC 25923), MRSA (ATCC 33591), and K. pneumoniae (ATCC 13883) but limited activity against E.coli. All extracts of the three wild mushrooms have shown the most antibacterial activities against S. aureus (ATCC 25923). Conclusion. The present study has shown that the extracts of the three wild mushrooms have shown promising antimicrobial activities against the tested organisms.

Natural rubber, Hevea brasiliensis, is one of the major economically important crops in Sri Lanka. Diseases play a significant role to reduce the production of rubber cultivations. Among them White Root Disease is the most destructive root disease which has caused a huge economic loss to the country. Rigidoporus microporus is the causative pathogen of White Root Disease. In order to control the pathogen, Tebuconazole and Hexaconazole can be used as systemic fungicides. However, due to the toxicity of these chemicals, antagonistic fungi can be used as an environmental friendly solution to reduce the usage of chemicals. Hence an attempt was taken to find out the ability of native antagonistic fungi to tolerate the chemical fungicides. Soil samples were collected from different rubber growing soils in Sri Lanka and using dilution plate technique fungi were isolated. After preparing pure cultures antagonistic ability against R. microporus was tested using dual plate culture test. More than 60% inhibition showing fungi was selected and subjected to Poison Food Technique (PFT) test. 5, 10, 25, 50, 75 and 100 ppm concentrations of the two fungicides were used to test the ability of tolerance by the isolates. According to the results, twenty-three effective fungi isolates were selected. Fourteen isolated fungi were identified as Trichoderma spp., three as Aspergillus spp. and the rest were unidentified. Three Trichoderma isolates and one Aspergillus isolate showed the radial expansion even at 50 ppm concentration of tebuconazole. Five Trichoderma isolates showed the growth at 100 ppm concentration of the Hexaconazole. The radial expansion of R. microporus has been totally inhibited at 25 ppm of tebuconazole and 50 ppm of hexaconazole. Therefore these antagonistic fungi can be used even at the higher concentrations which are fatal to R. microporus. Keywords: White root disease, Tebuconazole, Hexaconazole, Native antagonistic fungi

The rhizosphere related bacterial species have a significant capability in plant growth promotion, referred to as Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR). Several substances produced by antagonistic rhizobacteria have been related to pathogen control and indirect promotion of growth in many plants. The objectives of this study were to identify effective PGPR bacteria in rubber soils of Sri Lanka, determine the potential use as antagonists and biocontrol agents to control economically important Hevea diseases in nurseries, and identify effective novel inoculant formulations. Soil samples were collected from the root rhizozphere of cover crops in Hevea fields in Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RRISL), Dartonfield. Bacteria were isolated by TSA plate method. Isolated PGPR bacteria were subjected to test the enzyme secretion ability. Pectinase, Lipase, and Amylase secretion ability of PGPR were tested in specifically developed media. Auxin production of PGPR were measured using freshly prepared Salkowsky reagent. Phosphorous solubilizing ability of PGPR was tested using Pikovskaya (PVK) medium. Antagonistic ability of PGPR was tested against the Rigidoporous microporus, Fusarrium sp. and Pythium sp. causing white root disease and Patch Canker disease in rubber respectively. Paper disc diffusion method was used to test the antagonism of selected bacteria and the percentage growth inhibition was calculated. Plasmid DNA extraction of antagonistic PGPR was done following the alkaline SDS method. Gene sequencing of selected bacteria was further carried out. Among 13 selected PGPR bacterial species, 3 bacteria were showing significant antagonism towards R. microporus. (Percentage growth inhibition by 51.2%, 46.8% and 44.3% respectively) Fusarium sp. was controlled by 7 PGPR species. Pythium sp. was controlled by 2 PGPR (Percentage growth inhibition by 41.6% and 38.7% respectively) 5 types of combinations of bacteria were tested. Among 5 types, 2 types were highly effective in control of R. microporus (Percentage growth inhibition by 79.8% and 72.6% respectively). All 5 combinations were moderately effective in control Fusarium sp. and 1 type was highly effective in control of Pythium sp. (Percentage growth inhibition by 67.8%). PGPR can be used as effective biocontrol agents in control of Hevea pathogens. The combinations of PGPR are more effective than the individual bacterial species. This will be leading to improve the productivity of Hevea plantations in Sri Lanka. Keywords: Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria, Antagonism, Hevea pathogens

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins are dramatically accumulated after pathogen infection. Innate defense response through increasing PR-proteins is important for rubber rootstock selection that is tolerant to the white root disease caused by Rigidoporus microporus. This study was aimed to investigate the expression levels of PR-1 and PR-3 genes in tolerant (PB5/51) and susceptible (BPM24 and RRIM600) rubber clones after R. microporus infection. MATERIALS AND METHODS The mRNA of HbPR-1b and HbPR-3 was isolated and characterized from rubber leaves. Gene expression levels of HbPR-1b and HbPR-3 were compared among three rubber clones (PB5/51, BPM24 and RRIM600) after R. microporus infection at 0, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h using quantitative real-time PCR. The relative transcript abundances between inoculated and control plants were compared using the means of gene expression between time points and by Tukey's HSD test. A probability value (p

Rigidoporus microporus (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) syn. Rigidoporus lignosus is the most destructive root pathogen of rubber plantations distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Our primary objective was to characterize Nigerian isolates from rubber tree and compare them with other West African, Southeast Asian and American isolates. To characterize the 20 isolates from Nigeria, we used sequence data of the nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS and LSU, β-tubulin and translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1) gene sequences. Altogether, 40 isolates of R. microporus were included in the analyses. Isolates from Africa, Asia and South/Central America formed three distinctive clades corresponding to at least three species. No phylogeographic pattern was detected among R. microporus collected from West and Central African rubber plantations suggesting continuous gene flow among these populations. Our molecular phylogenetic analysis suggests the presence of two distinctive species associated with the white rot disease. Phylogenetic analyses placed R. microporus in the Hymenochaetales in the vicinity of Oxyporus. This is the first study to characterize R. microporus isolates from Nigeria through molecular phylogenetic techniques, and also the first to compare isolates from rubber plantations in Africa and Asia.

The preventive control of white root rot disease in small holder plantation using botanical, biological, and chemical agents. A field and laboratory experiment were conducted from June 2008 to December 2009 in Panumangan, Tulang Bawang - Lampung. The field experiment was intended to evaluate the effect of botanical plants (Alpinia galanga, Sansiviera auranthii, and Marantha arundinacea), biological agents (organic matter and Trichoderma spp.), and chemical agents (lime and natural sulphur) on the incidence of white root rot disease and population of some soil microbes. The laboratory experiment was conducted to observe the mechanism of botanical agents in controlling white root rot disease. In the field experiment, the treatments were applied in the experimental plot with cassava plant infection as the indicator. The variables examined were the incidence of white root rot and population of soil microbes. In the laboratory experiment, culture of R. microporus was grown in PDA containing root exudate of the antagonistic plant (botanical agent). The variable examined was colony diameter of R. microporus growing in the PDA plates. The results of the field experiment showed that planting of the botanical agents, and application of Trichoderma spp., as well as natural sulphur, decreased the incidence of white root rot disease. The effectiveness of M. arundinacea and Trichoderma spp. was comparable to natural sulphur. The laboratory experiment showed only root exudate of A. galanga and S. auranthii that were significantly inhibit the growth of R. microporus.

Microporus sp. near pallidipennis (Reuter) Unpublished records: [3], 5.i. 2015, on light, 1 &male;, coll. AK; [21], 31.i. 2006, on light, 1 &male;, 4 &female;, leg. Göllner; [14], 23.x. 2006, on light, 2 &female;, leg. Göllner, all coll. ZMHB., Published as part of Krüger, Andreas & Deckert, Jürgen, 2016, True bugs (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) of Botswana — Bibliographical inventory and new records, pp. 33-63 in Zootaxa 4114 (1) on page 46, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4114.1.2, http://zenodo.org/record/256012

Microporus lepidus (St��l) Aethus lepidus St��l, 1854: 215. Microporus lepidus: Lis, 1999: 212. Type data. Lectotype male (designated by Linnavuori, 1993: 79, as Holotype): South Africa, Caffraria (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm, Sweden). Distribution. Equatorial Quinea, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Nigeria, Republic of South Africa, Zaire., Published as part of Lis, Jerzy A., Lis, Barbara & Compton, Stephen G., 2016, Chilocoris capensis n. sp., the first species of the genus Chilocoris Mayr, 1865 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae) recorded in the Republic of South Africa with an annotated checklist of South African burrower bugs, pp. 564-574 in Zootaxa 4147 (5) on page 570, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4147.5.4, http://zenodo.org/record/265537, {"references":["Stal, C. (1854) Nya Hemiptera. Ofversigt af Kongliga Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhandlingar, 11, 231 - 255.","Lis, J. A. (1999) Burrower bugs of the Old World - a catalogue (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae). Genus (Wroclaw), 10, 165 - 249.","Linnavuori, R. E. (1993) Cydnidae of West, Central and North-East Africa (Heteroptera). Acta Zoologica Fennica, 192, 1 - 148."]}

Microporus bimaculatus Hesse Published record: Hesse (1935)., Published as part of Krüger, Andreas & Deckert, Jürgen, 2016, True bugs (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) of Botswana — Bibliographical inventory and new records, pp. 33-63 in Zootaxa 4114 (1) on page 46, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4114.1.2, http://zenodo.org/record/256012, {"references":["Hesse, A. J. (1935) Scientific results of the Verney-Lang Kalahari expedition, March to September 1930. Hemiptera, Heteroptera. Annals of the Transvaal Museum, 16, 581 - 589."]}

Microporus cruralis (St��l) Cydnus cruralis St��l, 1856: 194. Microporus cruralis: Lis, 1999: 211. Type data. Syntype (s): female(s), South Africa, Cape Province (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm, Sweden). Distribution. Republic of South Africa., Published as part of Lis, Jerzy A., Lis, Barbara & Compton, Stephen G., 2016, Chilocoris capensis n. sp., the first species of the genus Chilocoris Mayr, 1865 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae) recorded in the Republic of South Africa with an annotated checklist of South African burrower bugs, pp. 564-574 in Zootaxa 4147 (5) on page 570, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4147.5.4, http://zenodo.org/record/265537, {"references":["Stal, C. (1856) Hemiptera samlade a Victorin i Caplandet Ofversigt af Kongliga Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhandlingar, 13, 193 - 199.","Lis, J. A. (1999) Burrower bugs of the Old World - a catalogue (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae). Genus (Wroclaw), 10, 165 - 249."]}

Microporus sp. near lautipennis (Stål) Unpublished record: [5], 26.x. 2006, 1&male;, 2 &female;, leg. Göllner, coll. ZMHB., Published as part of Krüger, Andreas & Deckert, Jürgen, 2016, True bugs (Hemiptera-Heteroptera) of Botswana — Bibliographical inventory and new records, pp. 33-63 in Zootaxa 4114 (1) on page 46, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4114.1.2, http://zenodo.org/record/256012

Microporus lautipennis (St��l, 1858) Cydnus (Aethus) lautipennis St��l, 1858: 312. Aethus lividus Walker, 1867: 157 (syn. by Distant, 1899: 221). Microporus lautipennis: Lis, 1996: 101. Type data. Lectotype female of Cydnus lautipennis St��l (designated by Linnavuori, 1977: 39, as Type): South Africa, Kuisip (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm, Sweden). Holotype (by monotypy) of Aethus lividus Walker: Interior of South Africa (Natural History Museum, London, U.K.). Distribution. Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Dahomey, Democratic Republic of Congo (former Zaire), Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, Republic of South Africa, Senegal, South Sudan, Sudan., Published as part of Lis, Jerzy A., Lis, Barbara & Compton, Stephen G., 2016, Chilocoris capensis n. sp., the first species of the genus Chilocoris Mayr, 1865 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae) recorded in the Republic of South Africa with an annotated checklist of South African burrower bugs, pp. 564-574 in Zootaxa 4147 (5) on page 570, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4147.5.4, http://zenodo.org/record/265537, {"references":["Stal, C. (1858) Orthoptera och Hemiptera fran Sodra Afrika. Ofversigt af Kongliga Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhandlingar, 15, 307 - 320.","Walker, F. (1867) Catalogue of the Specimens of Hemiptera Heteroptera in the Collection of the British Museum, vol. 1. E. Newman, London, 240 pp. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 118688","Distant, W. L. (1899) Rhynchotal notes - Heteroptera: Plataspinae, Thyreocorinae and Cydninae. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 7, 213 - 227. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1080 / 00222939908678187","Lis, J. A. (1996) Some taxonomic changes in Afrotropical Cydnidae and new records for eight species of the family (Hemiptera, Heteroptera). Revue Francaise d'Entomologie (Nouvelle Serie), 18, 99 - 102.","Linnavuori, R. (1977) Hemiptera of the Sudan, with remarks on some species of the adjacent countries. 5. Tingidae, Piesmidae, Cydnidae, Thaumastellidae and Plataspidae. Acta Zoologica Fennica, 147, 1 - 81."]}

Biodiversity is a valuable asset which should be preserved and protected. Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park (GGPNP) is one of the conservation areas with a high level of biodiversity in Indonesia. Currently, mushroom diversity in GGPNP is rarely reported. Inventory of mushroom diversity is the first step of actions to maintaining germplasm and maximizing its potential usagein the future. In this paper, we explain how to use macroscopic characters to help identification of macro mushroom. The fungi collected from GGPNP were 19 species and 14 genera, including: Armillaria sp. 1, Armillaria sp. 2, Auricularia sp., Daedalea sp. 1, Daedalea sp. 2, Fomitopsis sp., Ganoderma sp. 1, Ganoderma sp. 2, Marasmius sp., Microporus sp. 1, Microporus sp. 2,Mycena sp., Phellinus sp., Polyporus sp., Rigidoporus sp., Russula sp., Sistotrema sp., Xylaria sp. 1, and Xylaria sp. 2. These mushroom could be potentially used as food and medicinal source.

The Bukit Rimbang Bukit Baling Wildlife Reserve Area (SMBRBB) Riau is one of the areas that has the characteristics of lowland rainforest types with high biodiversity, so it is possible to find many macro fungi, but there is no data on macrofungi diversity. This research was conducted with the aim of obtaining diversity data and potential data on macrofungi, both as food ingredients and as medicinal ingredients. This study uses a searching method that is modified by the path method using sample plots. 138 macrofungi species were obtained, which included 52 genera, 37 families and 3 phyla. Macrofungi diversity index at this location is relatively moderate, and high uniformity index. 66 species potentially as medicinal ingredients, including Amauroderma rugosum, Ganoderma aplanatum, Ganoderma lucidum, Lentinus sajo-caju, Lentinus squamolosus, Cymatoderma elegans, Daldinea concentrica, Microporus xantopus, M. afinitis, Pycnoporus cinnabarius, Polyporus arcularius, Rigidoporus microporus, Rigidoporus microporus, Trametes versikularis, and Xylaria longipes. As many as 32 species have potential as food ingredients, including Auricularia auricula, Auricularia delicata, Auricularia polytricha, Cookeina sulcipes, Phallus indusiatus, Lentinus sajor-caju, Lentinus squamolosus, Pleurotus ostreatus, Schizophyllum commune, Tramella fuciformis, and Volvariellavolvacea. Keywords: cultivation, diversity, food, makrofungi, medicine.

The polyporales are a large order of pore fungi within the Basidiomycota (Kingdom Fungi). They are mostly found on decay wood with some edible and medicinal species and others causing diseases of trees. In Cameroon, the knowledge on the phylogeny of polyporales is limited, their historical uses as food, medicine, source of income and the sociological impacts are apparently threatened due to slow ethnomycology research drive. The aim of this study was to identify and determine the phylogenetic relationship of polyporales in the Bafut forest and document its uses to the local communities. DNA was extracted using CTAB method and amplified using primers ITS 1 and ITS4. Their identities were determined in GeneBank using BLAST and a phylogenetic analysis was done using MEGA version 7. For ethnomycological studies, a total of 180 semi structured questionnaires were used to collect information on traditional knowledge in four communities around the Bafut forest. Results from phylogenetic studies showed that, ten species were identified and belonged to seven genera comprising of the Microporus, Hexagonia, Ganoderma, Trametes, Favolus, Steccherinum and Cymatoderma which formed 7 independent monophyletic groups. Ethnomycological findings revealed that, polypores are used as food and medicine within these communities. Microporus xanthopus and Microporus vernicipes were used as food and medicine while all Trametes species were reported to be only medicinal. The Bafut people commonly called mushrooms “Boh” and those that grow on wood “Boh ti”. They usually differentiate the edible and nonedible mushroom using the term “yi kworu” and “yi tekworu”. Thus “Boh yi kworu” and “Boh yi tekworu” respectively. This study represents the first on the identification, phylogeny and uses of polyporales to the communities around the Bafut forest reserves and helps in their conservation.

Wood deteriorating fungi were collected from Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuary (RWLS) between October 2006 and January 2011. Aurificaria indica var. leucocephala var. nov, and Microporus affinis var. glabriceps var. nov. are described and four species, Fomitopsis cupreorosea, Ganoderma curtisii, Microporus alboater and Phellinus shaferi are new reports for India. These six taxa are described and illustrated in this paper.

Biological agents Trichoderma virens and T. amazonicum have been developed and examined for their effectiveness through in vitro and in vivo approaches against Rigidoporus microporus, the cause of white root disease (WRD) in rubber. The effectiveness of these bio-agents can be determined by testing the dosage and frequency of Trichoderma spp. biofungicide application. The research aimed to investigate the effective dose and application frequency of Trichoderma spp. biofungicide on R. microporus infection in rubber seedling. The experiment was conducted in laboratory and screen house of Indonesian Industrial and Beverage Crops Research Institute (IIBCRI), Sukabumi, from June to December 2014. A randomized block design was used with 14 treatments and 3 replications, i.e biofungicide combination (T. virens and T. amazonicum), dosage (25, 50, and 75 g), application frequencies (1 and 2 times application), and two controls (positive and negative). Rubber seedlings used were propellegitiem seeds of GT1 clone planted in polybags. Trichoderma spp. was multiplied using fermentation method in liquid medium, whereas biofungicide was formulated using talc as carrier. Observed variables including Trichoderma spp. population number, incubation period, attack intensity, and WRD attack suppression. The results showed that T. virens and T. amazonicum biofungicides with 50 g/plant dose at one application was the most effective and efficient in suppressing R. microporus development on rubber seedlings. The type, dosage, and frequencies of application increased Trichoderma spp. population in soil, prolonged the pathogen’s incubation period, decreased WRD attack intensity, and suppress the attack of WRD disease.

Two rare eelpouts, Lycodes microporus Toyoshima 1983 and Lycodes ocellatus Toyoshima 1985, are redescribed, based on their type specimens and non-type specimens recently collected from Japan. Several disagreements were recognized between the original descriptions and the types of these species. The additional non-type specimens expand knowledge of the intraspecific variation of these species. Previously suggested synonymy between L. microporus and L. obscurus was reconfirmed.

Laccases (EC1.10.3.2) are multi-copper containing phenol oxidases that catalyse the oxidation of phenolic compounds and aromatic amines. They are widely distributed in higher plants and in many fungi. In fungi, they are involved in delignification, sporulation, pigment production and plant pathogenesis and fruiting body formation. Rigidoporus microporus is a white rot fungus efficient lignin degradation and causative agent of the most destructive white root disease. In this study, the production of laccase was detected qualitatively. Furthermore involvement of laccase in the host-pathogen interaction was also studied. Three isolates of R. microporus were isolated from symptomatic Hevea brasiliensis (R1), Mucuna bractiata (R2), and Artocarpus nobilis (R3). The level of laccase production was measured qualitatively on solid media containing the colour indicator of guaiacol. 5 mm diameter of mycelium discs from 7 day old cultures were innoculated into 2% PDA plates supplemented with 0.2% glucose as a laccase degrading substrate with 0.02% Guaiacol (pH 5.5) and incubated at RT (28±20 C) under continuous dark conditions. After, an incubation period of 4 days, the enzyme activity was examined by the decolorisation intensity. Morphology of the three isolates was also evaluated on malt extract agar. Lignin degradation ability was studied using artificial inocula prepared by fresh root pieces of H. brasiliensis and incubated for four months; thereafter they were splited longitudinally to observe the lignin degradation ability of the isolates. All the test isolates were laccase positive and R3 (A. nobilis) isolate produced higher intensity showing comparatively larger diameter of the reddish brown halos indicting higher level of laccase production. Moreover, the isolate R3 showed the formation of rhizomorphs in vitro conditions while the other isolates did not show them. Formation of rhizormorphs is associated with the laccase synthesis which has been reported to be responsible for making polyphenolic glue that sticks the hyphae together. The degradation of roots was observed to be comparatively faster by the isolate R3 leaving white pockets on roots by degrading cell wall component due to the removal of lignin in localized areas of wood and observation can be attributed with the higher laccase enzyme. The root pieces inoculated with R1 and R2 did not show white pockets and a spongy nature until four month incubation period. It has been revealed that the isolate R3 (A. nobilis) is a good laccase producer among the other isolates under investigation. Keywords: Laccase, Rhizormorphs, Rigidoporus microporus

Saprotrophic wood-decaying abilities of (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) syn. and the structural alterations induced in wood blocks of Muell. Arg were studied. Mass loss of wood blocks was analyzed after 3 and 6 months respectively and the patterns of decay by pathogenic and endophytic isolates of this fungus were investigated using light microscopy. Effects of temperature on growth of the isolates on malt extract agar were also investigated. The isolated from a non- host caused the highest percentage mass loss (27.2% after 6 months), followed by isolates ED310 (21.1%) and M13 (15.7%), both collected from diseased plantations. The isolate initially identified as an endophyte showed very low saprotrophic wood decay capability (4.3% after 6 months). The optimal temperature for growth of the isolates was 30 °C; except for the endophytic isolate which showed highest growth at 25 °C. Wood samples degraded by the isolates showed simultaneous attack of wood cell walls, typical of white rot fungi. Results of the study indicate variability in the wood degrading abilities of the isolates and the potential differences in their physiology are discussed. Our findings further support the need for a taxonomical revision of the genus.Rigidoporus microporusRigidoporus lignosusHevea brasiliensisR. microporusH. brasiliensisH. brasiliensisR. microporusRigidoporus

Production of lignin-modifying enzymes by 10 white-rot fungi, as measured by decolorization of Poly R 478 dye, varied in response to different carbon and nitrogen regimes. Fastest decolorization rates were achieved with wood polysaccharide monomers (glucose, xylose) as carbon source, although cellulose was the only carbon source to facilitate decolorization by all test fungi. Enzyme production by most isolates was strongly dependant on nitrogen levels, with high nitrogen conditions generally suppressing enzyme production. One unidentified isolate (HKUCC 4062) displayed apparent nitrogen deregulation of enzyme production. A cellulose-low nitrogen growth medium is recommended for agar-based screening procedures of lignin-modifying enzyme production by white-rot fungi.

This research was aimed to study the effect of temperature and storage on effectiveness of Trichoderma viride to suppress Rigidoporus microporus development, the pathogen of white root disease on rubber. This research applied a randomized complete block design with five treatments and five replications. Each treatment contained two rubber plants (total of plants 50). There were five treatments i.e.: compost containing T. viride which was stored at 17 o C for a month ( A ), compost containing T. viride which was stored at 24 o C for a month ( B ), compost containing T. viride which was stored at 30 o C for a month (C), Triadimefon ( D) and R. microporus ( control Results showed that that T. viride compost which was stored for a month at various temperatures was able to suppress R. microporus development. Trichoderma viride compost which was stored at of 17 o C for a month showed the best result. It was was able to supress white root disease severity up to 70 percent and rhizomorph colonization up to 62 percent respectively. The treatment was also able to increase the plant height and stem diameters. Keywords: effectiveness, Rigidoporus micro-porus , storage duration, temperature, Trichoderma viride

Natural rubber while promoting export earnings and livelihood of people supplementthousands of hectares to the forest cover. Over the past decades, the rubber yield hassignificantly increased due to the cultivation of high yielding clones. However, latexproduction still faces serious economic losses due to many biotic constraints which includesignificant losses caused by pathogenic fungi. Among them, White root disease (WRD) isvery destructive in rubber plantations of Sri Lanka and in many other rubber growingcountries. This disease has been identified as one of the major causes for the loss of plantsduring the first five years after planting resulting in low productivity levels. Inspite of the factthat disease management strategies have been clearly outlined by the Rubber ResearchInstitute, the disease incidence is showing an increasing trend. One of the main reasons forthis has been identified as the increment of the host range. In this situation expansion of thehost range of R.micrporus was undertaken. R. microporus was isolated from the symptomatichost plants such as Mucuna bractiacta, Camellia sinensis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum,Artocarpus nobilis, Alstonia macrophyll growing in and around rubber plantations. Some ofthe above crops such as C. sinensis, C. zeylanicum are intercrops recommended by the RRIwhile A. nobilis and A. macrophylla are important forest crop species grown in the vicinity ofrubber cultivations. M. bractiata is also one of the most commonly grown cover cropsrecommended for rubber plantations. The pathogen was isolated, on to Malt Extract Agarafter surface sterilizing in 70% ethanol for 3 minutes. Pure cultures were obtained and thecultural characteristics were recorded for the five isolates separately. For comparativepurpose isolate from H. brasiliensis was employed. Colonies showed white flattened cultures.Isolates from M. bractiacta, C. sinensis, C. zeylanicum, H. brsiliensis and A. nobilis showedpuffy aerial growth while A. macrophylla showed clear concentric zones which are prominentfrom the lower side of the colonies. Among the isolates investigated, the fastest growth ratewas observed in the isolate from C. sinensis showing 1.262cm/day while the lowest growthrate 1.205 cm/day was shown by the rubber isolate. The pathogenecity of the isolatesobtained from the above hosts were proven against the respective hosts by following theKoch’s postulates under green house conditions. The cross infection abilities of the isolateswere also assessed and all isolates infected Hevea brasiliensis showing cross infectionabilities. Pathogenic and genetic variability among the different isolates are beinginvestigated.The information will be valuable in the development of improved managementstrategies against white root disease of rubber.

Intraspecific variability in the number of trunk segments is demonstrated for the first time in a representative of the Mecistocephalidae, a basal clade within the geophilomorph centipedes. This destabilization of an otherwise species‐constant segment number is interpreted as a result of the recent quasi‐duplication of segments shown by Mecistocephalus microporus Haase, 1887, with respect to its most recent ancestor. The new finding fits well with a recently proposed biphasic model of centipede segmentation. The species is redescribed and two new synonymies are proposed: Megethmus Cook, 1895 as junior synonym of Mecistocephalus Newport, 1843 and Megethmus pluripes Chamberlin, 1920 as a junior synonym of Mecistocephalus microporus Haase, 1887.

Seed germination test ofGaleola altissima was carried out with five aphyllophorales fungi:Erythromyces crocicreas, Ganoderma australe, Loweporus tephroporus, Microporus affinus andPhellinus sp.. All five species were effective for seed germination of the orchid.Erythromyces crocicreas, which has hitherto been regarded as the only endomycorrhizal fungus of the orchid, was confirmed to be effective for further development of the orchid.

Genus Microporus Uhler Microporus Uhler, 1872: 394. Type species: Microporus obliquus Uhler, monotypic. shiromai Froeschner, 1976 Microporus shiromai Froeschner, 1976. Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 22: 232���234. Holotype: male (USNM) USA, Hawaii, Oahu. Paratypes: 53 males, 91 females (USNM) USA, Hawaii, Oahu., Published as part of A, Magnanelli Marco & Coscar��n, Maria Del Carmen, 2011, Burrower bugs described after the Cydnidae of the Western ��� Hemisphere catalogue 1960 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae), pp. 57-63 in Zootaxa 2766 on pages 60-61, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.201379, {"references":["Uhler, P. R. (1872) Notices of the Hemiptera of the Western territories of the United States. Hayden preliminary report U. S. Geological Survey. Montana, 392 - 423.","Froeschner, R. C. (1976) Burrowing bugs of Hawaii, with description of a new species (Hemiptera: Cydnidae). Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society, 22, 229 - 236."]}