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This study investigated the endocrine responses to accentuated eccentric loading (AEL) paired with cluster sets (CSs) versus traditional training (TRAD). Seventeen recreationally active subjects (male = 11, females = 6, age = 23.18 ± 4.15 yrs, height = 1.72 ± 0.1 m, body mass = 81.29 ± 22.18 kg, back squat-to-body mass ratio = 1.55 ± 0.33, and bench press-to-body mass ratio = 1.06 ± 0.28) were randomly allocated into AEL and TRAD groups and trained for 4 weeks. The training was performed during a strength–endurance block with the target load consisting of three sets of 10 repetitions. The AEL group performed three sets of 10 for the squat and bench press using AEL every other repetition (5 AEL repetitions per set). In this protocol, CSs were also performed as one AEL repetition plus one traditional repetition followed by 15 s rest. Resistance training was performed three days a week, whilst sprint and agility training were performed two days a week. Testosterone (T), cortisol (C), creatinine (CREA), fat mass (FM), and fat-free mass (FFM) were assessed pre- and post-test. With a series of 2 × 2 repeated-measure ANOVA, the differences in the means between the two training methods and across time were compared. No statistically significant differences in resting blood variables or body composition were observed between the AEL and TRAD protocols after 4 weeks of training. Whilst the results marginally favored the use of AEL, these results did not support significant improvements in body composition or hormonal responses.

There is substantial evidence indicating that increased maximum strength as a result of training with squats, particularly full and parallel squats, is associated with superior athletic capabilities, such as sprinting, jumping and agility. Although full and parallel squats have been strongly associated with sport performance, there is also some evidence that the use of partial squats may provide angle specific adaptations that are likely advantageous for specific sporting activities. Partial squats may be particularly advantageous when trained in conjunction with full or parallel squats, as this practice results in a greater training effect. There is a paucity of evidence that squatting is associated with excessive injuries to the knees, lower back, or other structures. Evidence does indicate that squatting, including full squats, can be undertaken safely, provided an appropriate training methodology is applied. Indeed, based on scientific data, the cost/benefit ratio indicates that squats should be recommended and should be a central strength training exercise for the preparation of athletes in most sports, particularly those requiring strong and powerful whole body and lower body movements.

Background: The monitoring of accelerometry derived load has received increased attention in recent years. However, the ability of such measures to quantify training load during sport-related activities is not well established. Thus, the current study aimed to assess the validity and reliability of tri-axial accelerometers to identify step count and quantify external load during several locomotor conditions including walking, jogging, and running.Method: Thirty physically active college students (height = 176.8 ± 6.1 cm, weight = 82.3 ± 12.8 kg) participated. Acceleration data was collected via two tri-axial accelerometers (Device A and B) sampling at 100 Hz, mounted closely together at the xiphoid process. Each participant completed two trials of straight-line walking, jogging, and running on a 20 m course. Device A was used to assess accelerometer validity to identify step count and the test-retest reliability of the instrument to quantify the external load. Device A and Device B were used to assess inter-device reliability. The reliability of accelerometry-derived metrics Impulse Load (IL) and Magnitude g (MAG) were assessed.Results: The instrument demonstrated a positive predictive value (PPV) ranging between 96.98%–99.41% and an agreement ranging between 93.08%–96.29% for step detection during all conditions. Good test-retest reliability was found with a coefficient of variation (CV)

Specificity has two major components: A strength-endurance continuum (S-EC) and adherence to principles of Dynamic Correspondence. Available evidence indicates the existence of the S-EC continuum from two aspects. Indeed, the S-EC exists, particularly if work is equated as a high load low repetition scheme at one end (strength stimulus) and high volume (HIEE stimulus) at the other. Furthermore, some evidence also indicates that the continuum as a repetition paradigm with high-load, low repetition at one end (strength stimulus) and a high repetition, low load at the other end. The second paradigm is most apparent under three conditions: (1) ecological validity—in the real world, work is not equated, (2) use of absolute loads in testing and (3) a substantial difference in the repetitions used in training (for example 2–5 repetitions versus ≥10 repetitions). Additionally, adherence to the principles and criteria of dynamic correspondence allows for greater “transfer of training” to performance measures. Typically, and logically, in order to optimize transfer, training athletes requires a reasonable development of capacities (i.e., structure, metabolism, neural aspects, etc.) before more specific training takes place.

Background: The purpose of this study was to examine seasonal changes in training load (TL), neuromuscular performance, subjective recovery, and stress state, and to investigate the relationships between acute and chronic TL and neuromuscular performance in competitive female soccer players.Methods: Nine competitive female soccer players (20.0 ± 1.7 years; 60.3 ± 6.3 kg; 164.0 ± 5.8 cm) completed the Short Recovery and Stress Scale and the countermovement jump (CMJ) with polyvinyl chloride pipe (CMJ0) and 20 kg barbell (CMJ20) at 2–3 h before 1st match (NC1), 6th match (NC2), 9th match (C1), and 15th match (C2) of the competitive season. TL included total distance, high-speed running, and PlayerLoad. Acute and chronic TL was calculated by using the average of 2 days (D2), 7 days (D7), and 21 days (D21) prior to four different match play.Results: Significant decreases were found from NC1 to C1 in D7 total distance [p = 0.03, Cohen's effect size (dz) = 1.40]. D7 total distance and PlayerLoad significantly decreased from NC to C1 and C2 (p = 0.001–0.01, dz = 1.40–1.72). Significant increases were observed from NC1 to C1 in CMJ0 jump height (p = 0.03, dz = 1.40), (p = 0.021, dz = 1.44), and peak power (p = 0.03, dz = 1.32). Significant negative correlations were observed for D7 total distance and CMJ0 jump height (p = 0.02, r = 0.79) and peak power (p = 0.03, r = 0.71) at C2, while significant positive correlations were observed at C1 for D7 PlayerLoad and CMJ0 jump height (p = 0.02, r = 0.80).Conclusion: Polyvinyl chloride pipe (CMJ0) jump height and peak power may increase from preseason to the midcompetitive season. Seasonal variations may affect the relationships between D7 TL and CMJ0 performance.

Before major athletic events, a taper is often prescribed to facilitate recovery and enhance performance. However, it is unknown which taper model is most effective for peaking maximal strength and positively augmenting skeletal muscle. Thus, the purpose of this study was to compare performance outcomes and skeletal muscle adaptations following a step vs. an exponential taper in strength athletes. Sixteen powerlifters (24.0 ± 4.0 years, 174.4 ± 8.2 cm, 89.8 ± 21.4 kg) participated in a 6-week training program aimed at peaking maximal strength on back squat [initial 1-repetition-maximum (1RM): 174.7 ± 33.4 kg], bench press (118.5 ± 29.9 kg), and deadlift (189.9 ± 41.2 kg). Powerlifters were matched based on relative maximal strength, and randomly assigned to either (a) 1-week overreach and 1-week step taper or (b) 1-week overreach and 3-week exponential taper. Athletes were tested pre- and post-training on measures of body composition, jumping performance, isometric squat, and 1RM. Whole muscle size was assessed at the proximal, middle, and distal vastus lateralis using ultrasonography and microbiopsies at the middle vastus lateralis site. Muscle samples (n = 15) were analyzed for fiber size, fiber type [myosin-heavy chain (MHC)-I, -IIA, -IIX, hybrid-I/IIA] using whole muscle immunohistochemistry and single fiber dot blots, gene expression, and microRNA abundance. There were significant main time effects for 1RM squat (p < 0.001), bench press (p < 0.001), and deadlift, (p = 0.024), powerlifting total (p < 0.001), Wilks Score (p < 0.001), squat jump peak-power scaled to body mass (p = 0.001), body mass (p = 0.005), fat mass (p = 0.002), and fat mass index (p = 0.002). There were significant main time effects for medial whole muscle cross-sectional area (mCSA) (p = 0.006) and averaged sites (p < 0.001). There was also a significant interaction for MHC-IIA fiber cross-sectional area (fCSA) (p = 0.014) with post hoc comparisons revealing increases following the step-taper only (p = 0.002). There were significant main time effects for single-fiber MHC-I% (p = 0.015) and MHC-IIA% (p = 0.033), as well as for MyoD (p = 0.002), MyoG (p = 0.037), and miR-499a (p = 0.033). Overall, increases in whole mCSA, fCSA, MHC-IIA fCSA, and MHC transitions appeared to favor the step taper group. An overreach followed by a step taper appears to produce a myocellular environment that enhances skeletal muscle adaptations, whereas an exponential taper may favor neuromuscular performance.

Little is known about the success of the insanity defense in homicide cases involving posthumous dismemberment. Such seemingly bizarre conduct may suggest, at first glance, aberrant mental states. Drawing from a larger study of cases of single or repeat homicide followed by dismemberment on at least one occasion, we examined 38 in which offenders pleaded the insanity defense. These were compared to 30 cases in which no posthumous dismemberment was observed. Cases were drawn from print and online sources, as well as the Radford/Florida Gulf Coast Universities Serial Killer Database (SKD). Various motivations for both homicide and posthumous dismemberment among defendants who attempted to plead Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity (NGRI) were analyzed.The most common style of mutilation and dismemberment observed was aggressive, occurring in the context of excessive emotion, such as rage or acute psychosis. Among those in the dismemberment group, 52.6% of the NGRI cases proved successful. In comparison, 33.3% of the NGRI cases were successful among those in the non-dismemberment group. A relationship between NGRI outcomes and motive for homicide was observed in both comparison groups.Our findings suggest that posthumous dismemberment may be an important characterological description in homicide offending, representing murderous impulses that may help to identify a sub-group of homicide offenders. Examination of posthumous dismemberment vis-a-vis NGRI verdicts also helps elucidate the degree to which posthumous dismemberment is, at least in some cases, a psychopathology-driven action.

The relationship between asymmetry and performance is still undetermined in the literature. Methods of assessing asymmetry have been inconsistent and focused on the analysis of jumping asymmetry. Dual ground reaction forces are prevalent in athlete monitoring, though underutilized in asymmetry research. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship of countermovement jump (CMJ) impulse asymmetry to performance in collegiate soccer athletes. Male and female athletes were selected from an ongoing athlete research repository database of NCAA D-I soccer athletes. All athletes contributed two maximal effort unweighted (CMJ0) and weighted countermovement jumps (CMJ20) using the mean for calculations. Propulsive phase asymmetry scores (PrPAS) and positive impulse asymmetry scores (PIAS) were calculated to determine the magnitude of asymmetry for each prospective phase. Statistically significant correlations were found between CMJ0 jump height and unweighted PIAS (r = −0.43) in females. Males had statistically significant correlations between CMJ20 jump height and weighted PIAS (r = −0.49). Neither unweighted PrPAS nor weighted PrPAS produced statistically significant correlations (r < 0.26) to their prospective jump heights. When assessing CMJ asymmetry, it is recommended to conduct both weighted and unweighted CMJ testing, utilizing PIAS as the metric to be assessed.

The purpose of this investigation was to elucidate the changes in cf-DNA as it relates to fluctuations in resistance training workloads and intensities. The relationship between cell free DNA (cf-DNA), C-reactive protein (CRP), creatine kinase (CK), testosterone (T), cortisol (C), testosterone-cortisol ratio (T:C), body mass and body composition were also examined. Eight weightlifters (5 males and 3 females, age = 25 ± 3.5 yr, body mass = 88.3 ± 22.7 kg, height = 173.8 ±8.4 cm) volunteered to participate in this study. Venous blood samples, body mass and body composition were taken six times, each corresponding to the end of a training phase. CK (p = 0.018, η² = 0.409) and CK %Δ (p < 0.001, η² = 0.594) were the only biochemical variables to reach statistical significance at any point. A number of statistically significant correlations were found among variables. VLD4wk was related to CK %Δ (r = 0.86), VLD4wk %Δ was related CK %Δ (r = 0.86) and TID1wk was related to CRP (r = 0.83). cf-DNA %Δ was correlated with CRP and CRP %Δ (r = 0.83 and 0.86, respectively). CRP and CRP %Δ were correlated with BF % (r = 0.94 and 0.92, respectively). CK and CK %Δ were both related to T:C (r = 0.94 and 0.89, respectively) and T:C %Δ (r = 0.87 and 0.86, respectively). The correlation between cf-DNA and CRP suggests that cf-DNA may be a valuable indicator of inflammation in weightlifters.

Ideally an athlete would continue to improve performance indefinitely over time, however improvement slows as the athlete approaches their genetic limits. Measuring performance is complex—performance may be temporarily depressed following aggressive training for multiple reasons, physiological and psychosocial. This reality may be vexing to the strength and conditioning coach, who, as a service provider, must answer to sport coaches about an athlete’s progress. Recently an evaluation mechanism for strength and conditioning coaches was proposed, in part to help coaches establish their effectiveness within the organization. Without formal guidance and realistic expectations, if an athlete is not bigger, leaner, stronger, etc. as a result of training within a specified timeframe, blame is often placed upon the strength and conditioning coach. The purpose of this article is to explore possible causes of what may be perceived as athlete non-responses to training and to provide guidance for the coach on how to handle those issues within their domain. A process of investigation is recommended, along with resources to assist coaches as they consider a broad range of issues, including enhancing existing testing methods, improving athlete behaviors, and adjusting processes designed to bring about performance improvement.

This study was designed to provide an overview of weightlifting performance as a function of age group and sex and evaluate the potential of countermovement jump height (CMJH) as a tool to gauge performance potential. Data from 130 youth athletes (female, n = 65 & male, n = 65) were used to examine progression of performance (Total and Sinclair total) and the relationship between CMJH and Sinclair total while considering interactions between CMJH and age and/or sex. ANOVAs with post hoc analyses revealed that both totals had a statistical first-order polynomial interaction effect between age group and sex and the difference between age groups of 12–13 and 14–15 years old was statistically greater for male than female. A linear model, developed to examine the relationship, revealed that CMJH and CMJH x sex x age rejected the null hypothesis. Our primary findings are that male youth weightlifters have a higher rate of performance progression, possibly owing to puberty, and CMJH may be a better gauging tool for older male youth weightlifters.

The purpose of this study was to examine if short-term periodized programming may improve strength, power, jump kinetics, and sprint efficiency in soccer. Seventeen players (19.6 ± 1.6 yrs; 73.8 ± 8.2 kg; 1.77 ± 0.6 m) were divided into two groups based on mean isometric midthigh pull peak force (IPF) (stronger and weaker) and squat jump (SJ) peak power (PP) (higher power and lower power). Eight weaker players were included in the lower power group, while six stronger players were included in the higher power group. Block periodization was adopted to design strength training consisting of 3-week strength endurance and 4-week maximum strength blocks. Performance data included SJ with polyvinyl chloride pipe (SJ0), 20 kgs bar (SJ20), and 40 kgs (SJ40) bar and 20 m sprint across three time points (baseline: TB; post-block 1: T1; post-block 2: T2). Stronger group showed significant increases from TB to T2 in SJ20 peak power (PP), net impulse, and allometrically-scaled PP (p = 0.005 to 0.01, ES = 0.32 to 0.49). Weaker group demonstrated moderate to large increases from TB to T2 in SJ20, allometrically-scaled peak force (PF), PP, and allometrically-scaled PP (p = B to T2 in SJ20 allometrically-scaled PF, net impulse, PP, and allometrically-scaled PP (p =

The ability to produce force rapidly has the potential to directly influence sprinting performance through changes in stride length and stride frequency. This ability is commonly referred to as the rate of force development (RFD). For this reason, many elite sprinters follow a combined program consisting of resistance training and sprint training. The purpose of this study was to investigate the strength, endocrine and body composition adaptations that occur during distinct phases of a block periodized training cycle in a 400 m Olympic level sprinter. The athlete is an elite level 400 m male sprinter (age 31 years, body mass: 74 kg, years of training: 15 and Personal Best (PB): 45.65 s). This athlete completed four distinct training phases of a block periodized training program (16 weeks) with five testing sessions consisting of testosterone:cortisol (T/C) profiles, body composition, vertical jump, and maximum strength testing. Large fluctuations in T/C were found following high volume training and the taper. Minor changes in body mass were observed with an abrupt decrease following the taper which coincided with a small increase in fat mass percentage. Jump height (5.7%), concentric impulse (9.4%), eccentric impulse (3.4%) and power ratio (18.7%) all increased substantially from T1 to T5. Relative strength increased 6.04% from T1 to T5. Lastly, our results demonstrate the effectiveness of a competitive taper in increasing physiological markers for performance as well as dynamic performance variables. Block periodization training was effective in raising the physical capabilities of an Olympic level 400 m runner which have been shown to directly transfer to sprinting performance.

The purpose of this longitudinal, descriptive study was to observe changes in maximal strength measured via isometric clean grip mid-thigh pull and home runs (total and home runs per game) across three years of training and three competitive seasons for four National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 baseball players. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed, revealing significant univariate effects of time for peak force (PF) (p = 0.003) and peak force allometrically scaled (PFa) (p = 0.002). Increases in PF were noted from season 1 to season 2 (p = 0.031) and season 3 (p = 0.004), but season 2 was not significantly different than season 3 (p = 0.232). Additionally, increases in PFa were noted from season 1 to season 2 (p = 0.010) and season 3 (p < 0.001), but season 2 was not significantly different than season 3 (p = 0.052). Home runs per game rose from the 2009 (0.32) to 2010 season (1.35) and dropped during the 2011 season (1.07). A unique aspect of the study involves 2010 being the season in which ball-bat coefficient of restitution (BBCOR) bats were introduced to the NCAA competition.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between body composition, strength, power characteristics, sprinting, jumping, and intermittent endurance performance in collegiate male players. Twenty-three players participated (19.7 ± 1.6 yrs; 71.8 ± 7.1 kg; 176.5 ± 5.1 cm). Measurements of interest in body composition included body fat percentage (BF%), lean body mass (LBM), and body mass (BM). Power characteristics were measured with an unloaded squat jump (SJ0) and loaded SJ at 20 kg (SJ20) and 40 kg (SJ40), and unloaded countermovement jump (CMJ0). Power assessments included peak power (PP) and PP allometrically scaled (PPa). Strength characteristics were assessed using isometric mid-thigh pull. Strength assessment included isometric peak force (IPF) and IPF allometrically scaled (IPFa). Performance measures included 10m and 20 m sprint time, CMJ0 jump-height, and Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test level 1 distance. Significant correlations ranging from moderate to very large were found for LBM and CMJ jump height (CM0 JH) (p = 0.01, r = 0.50); BF% and sprint times at 10 m (p = 0.03, r = 0.44) and 20 m (p = 0.02, r = 0.50). PP and PPa from SJ0 and CMJ0 were significantly correlated to 10m sprint time (p < 0.05, r = −0.45 to −0.53) and 20 m sprint time (p < 0.05, r = −0.40 to −0.49). Our findings agree with previous literature in that body composition and power characteristics are directly related to soccer-related performance.

While strength is indeed a skill, most discussions have primarily considered structural adaptations rather than ultrastructural augmentation to improve performance. Altering the structural component of the muscle is often the aim of hypertrophic training, yet not all hypertrophy is equal; such alterations are dependent upon how the muscle adapts to the training stimuli and overall training stress. When comparing bodybuilders to strength and power athletes such as powerlifters, weightlifters, and throwers, while muscle size may be similar, the ability to produce force and power is often inequivalent. Thus, performance differences go beyond structural changes and may be due to the muscle’s ultrastructural constituents and training induced adaptations. Relative to potentiating strength and power performances, eliciting specific ultrastructural changes should be a variable of interest during hypertrophic training phases. By focusing on task-specific hypertrophy, it may be possible to achieve an optimal amount of hypertrophy while deemphasizing metabolic and aerobic components that are often associated with high-volume training. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to briefly address different types of hypertrophy and provide directions for practitioners who are aiming to achieve optimal rather than maximal hypertrophy, as it relates to altering ultrastructural muscular components, to potentiate strength and power performance.

Some controversy exists as to the most efficacious method of training to achieve enhanced levels of sport performance. Controversy concerning the efficacy of periodization and especially block periodization (BP) likely stems from the use of poorly or untrained subjects versus trained who may differ in their responses to a stimulus. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of training status on performance outcomes resulting from 11 weeks of BP training. Fifteen males were recruited for this study and placed into strong (age = 24.3 ± 1.9 years., body mass (BM) = 87.7 ± 8.7 kg, squat: body mass = 1.96 ± 0.16), moderate (age = 25.3 ± 2.7 years., body mass = 100.2 ± 15.5 kg, squat: body mass = 1.46 ± 0.14), or weak (age = 23.2 ± 3.9 yrs., body mass = 83.5 ± 17.1 kg, squat: body mass = 1.17 ± 0.07) groups based on relative strength. Testing was completed at baseline, and after each block which consisted of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) squat, 0 kg static jump (SJ), 0 kg countermovement jump (CMJ), 20 kg SJ, and 20 kg CMJ. Absolute and relative strength were strongly correlated with rates of improvement for absolute strength, relative strength, 0 kg, and 20 kg vertical jumps. All subjects substantially improved back squat (p < 0.001), relative back squat (p < 0.001) with large–very large effect sizes between groups for percent change favoring the weak group over the moderate and strong group for all performance variables. All subjects showed statistically significant improvements in 0 kg SJ (p < 0.001), 0 kg CMJ (p < 0.001), 20 kg SJ (p = 0.002), and 20 kg CMJ (p < 0.001). Statistically significant between group differences were noted for both 20 kg SJ (p = 0.01) and 20 kg CMJ (p = 0.043) with the strong group statistically greater jump heights than the weak group. The results of this study indicate BP training is effective in improving strength and explosive ability. Additionally, training status may substantially alter the response to a resistance training program.

Prior to major competitions, athletes often use a peaking protocol such as tapering or training cessation to improve performance. The majority of the current literature has focused on endurance-based sports such as swimming, cycling, and running to better understand how and when to taper or use training cessation to achieve the desired performance outcome. However, evidence regarding peaking protocols for strength and power athletes is lacking. Current limitations for peaking maximal strength is that many studies do not provide sufficient details for practitioners to use. Thus, when working with athletes such as powerlifters, weightlifters, throwers, and strongman competitors, practitioners must use trial and error to determine the best means for peaking rather than using an evidence-based protocol. More specifically, determining how to peak maximal strength using data derived from strength and power athletes has not been established. While powerlifting training (i.e., back squat, bench press, deadlift) is used by strength and power athletes up until the final days prior to a competition, understanding how to peak maximal strength relative to powerlifting performance is still unclear. Thus, the purpose of this study was to review the literature on tapering and training cessation practices relative to peaking powerlifting performance.

The purposes of this study were to investigate effects of partial block periodized strength training on physical performance and to examine relationships between initial muscle strength measured with isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and performance changes after 7 weeks of strength training. Seventeen collegiate male soccer players participated. Initial muscle strength was determined using IMTP while physical performance included 10 m and 20 m sprints and static vertical jump with a polyvinyl chloride pipe (SJ0), 20 kg barbell (SJ20), and barbell loaded to 40 kg bar (SJ40). Performance testing was performed at three points: before first week (baseline), fourth week (T1), and seventh week (T2). Statistically small to moderate changes were found from baseline to T2 in peak power (PP; p < 0.001, ES = 0.49), net impulse (NI; p < 0.001, ES = 0.49), peak velocity (PV; p < 0.001, ES = 0.62), allometrically scaled PP (PPa; p < 0.001, ES = 0.62) in SJ20 and jump height (JH) in SJ40 (p < 0.001, ES = 0.36). Moderate to large correlations were found between isometric peak force and the changes from baseline to T2 in SJ20 PP (p = 0.04, r = −0.49), SJ20 PF (p = 0.03, r = −0.52), PPa (p = 0.04, r = −0.50), and SJ20 allometrically scaled peak force (p = 0.04, r = −0.49). Properly structured strength training maximizes task-specific physical performance. Initial muscle strength negatively affects the magnitudes of adaptations to physical performance.

Analysis of elite performances is important to elucidate the characteristics of effective weightlifting technique contributing to the highest level of achievement. The general technique of the weightlifting movements is well established. However, it is also apparent that weightlifting technique can differ based on athlete characteristics. Thus, existing technical models may not accurately reflect current technique of top performers or be applied generically to athletes of different skill, size, sex, or ability. Therefore, the purpose of this descriptive study was to update the scientific knowledge of snatch technique of top international weightlifters. This study used video analysis to determine barbell trajectory and kinematics of 319 successful snatch attempts from two major international competitions. Relative frequencies of barbell trajectory types differed based on competition, sex, category, and ranking. No statistical differences were observed among the top-three performers for either sex for most kinematic variables, and there were no overall discernible patterns of effect size differences for individual or clusters of kinematic variables. The results of this study indicate that weightlifting success can be achieved with a variety of technique profiles.

In this editorial, we focus on recent problematic developments in sport science, and more specifically, problems related to periodization research. Primary areas discussed are (1) appreciation of history, (2) considerations for training studies, (3) the development of concepts, and (4) programming-driven training models.

Cytokine and hormone concentrations can be linked to the manipulation of training variables and to subsequent alterations in performance. Subjects: Nine D-1 collegiate throwers and 4 control subjects participated in this preliminary and exploratory report. Methods: Hormone (testosterone (T) and cortisol (C)) and adipokine (adiponectin, leptin, and resistin) measurements were taken at weeks 1, 7, and 11 for the throwers and weeks 1 and 11 for the control group. The throwers participated in an 11-week periodized resistance training and throws program during the fall preparatory period. Volume load was recorded throughout the study. Results: Hormone values did not exhibit statistically significant changes across time; however, there were notable changes for C, the testosterone to cortisol ratio (T:C), and adiponectin. Conclusions: T:C was increased as volume load decreased, and adiponectin increased in concert with decreases in C and increases in the T:C, possibly suggesting a lesser degree of obesity-related inflammation and a higher degree of “fitness” and preparedness.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the level of agreement in measuring back squat kinematics between an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and a 3D motion capture system (3DMOCAP). Kinematic variables included concentric peak velocity (CPV), concentric mean velocity (CMV), eccentric peak velocity (EPV), eccentric mean velocity (EMV), mean propulsive velocity (MPV), and POP-100: a proprietary variable. Sixteen resistance-trained males performed an incrementally loaded one repetition maximum (1RM) squat protocol. A series of Pearson correlations, 2 × 4 RM ANOVA, Cohen’s d effect size differences, coefficient of variation (CV), and standard error of the estimate (SEE) were calculated. A large relationship existed for all variables between devices (r = 0.78–0.95). Between-device agreement for CPV worsened beyond 60% 1RM. The remaining variables were in agreement between devices with trivial effect size differences and similar CV magnitudes. These results support the use of the IMU, regardless of relative intensity, when measuring EMV, EPV, MPV, and POP-100. However, practitioners should carefully select kinematic variables of interest when using the present IMU device for velocity-based training (VBT), as certain measurements (e.g., CMV, CPV) do not possess practically acceptable reliability or accuracy. Finally, the IMU device exhibited considerable practical data collection concerns, as one participant was completely excluded and 13% of the remaining attempts displayed obvious internal error.

Nearly every modern Olympic Games has brought astonished comments and criticism of the body sizes of female gymnasts. The comments from laypersons, scientists, journalists, and physicians too often imply that these diminutive athletes are unusually small and possibly unhealthy. Purpose: An extended and updated analysis of the sizes of U.S. female Olympic gymnasts including the 2012 and 2016 Olympic Games. Methods: Official public records from the US Olympic Committee and USA Gymnastics of Olympic team members were assessed including height, mass, age, body-mass index (BMI) and team performance rankings. Sixteen Olympic teams with a total of 123 team positions including the alternates were assessed. Trend analyses were conducted using linear and polynomial models. Results: Analyses indicated that since 1956, height, mass, age, and BMI declined at first and then increased, with the exceptions of height and rank. Best regression fits were obtained via 2nd order polynomial equations. Height and rank showed a downward trend throughout the historical period. Conclusion: Female Olympic gymnasts were getting smaller through approximately the 1980s and early 1990s. An upward trend in size variables was then observed through 2008. The addition of the 2012 and 2016 Olympic Games data showed that height shifted to a decline from a slight upward trend, and rank continued to decline throughout the historical period.

The process of strength–power training and the subsequent adaptation is a multi-factorial process. These factors range from the genetics and morphological characteristics of the athlete to how a coach selects, orders, and doses exercises and loading patterns. Consequently, adaptation from these training factors may largely relate to the mode of delivery, in other words, programming tactics. There is strong evidence that the manner and phases in which training is presented to the athlete can make a profound difference in performance outcome. This discussion deals primarily with block periodization concepts and associated methods of programming for strength–power training within track and field.

Planning training programs for strength–power track and field athletes require an understanding of both training principles and training theory. The training principles are overload, variation, and specificity. Each of these principles must be incorporated into an appropriate system of training. Conceptually, periodization embraces training principles and offers advantages in planning, allowing for logical integration and manipulation of training variables such as exercise selection, intensification, and volume factors. The adaptation and progress of the athlete is to a large extent directly related to the ability of the coach/athlete to create and carry an efficient and efficacious training process. This ability includes: an understanding of how exercises affect physiological and performance adaptation (i.e., maximum force, rate of force development, power, etc.), how to optimize transfer of training effect ensuring that training exercises have maximum potential for carryover to performance, and how to implement programs with variations at appropriate levels (macro, meso, and micro) such that fatigue management is enhanced and performance progress is optimized.

The present article addresses issues within U.S. collegiate sport as it pertains to the physical preparation and health and well-being of intercollegiate athletes. Specifically, the sport coach is often perceived as “all knowing” about every facet of their sport when, in fact, they typically are not formally educated or well-trained in current methods of enhancing sport performance. Often strength and conditioning coaches, who may also be poorly trained, are tied directly (financially and administratively) to the sport coach—a situation which has led to a subservient role heavily influenced by the wishes of the sport coach. This has unfortunately resulted in the multidimensional well-being of the athlete clearly not being a primary objective in many programs.

The purpose of this review is to provide strength and conditioning practitioners with recommendations on how best to implement tempo eccentric training (TEMPO), flywheel inertial training (FIT), accentuated eccentric loading (AEL), and plyometric training (PT) into resistance training programs that seek to improve an athlete’s hypertrophy, strength, and power output. Based on the existing literature, TEMPO may be best implemented with weaker athletes to benefit positional strength and hypertrophy due to the time under tension. FIT may provide an effective hypertrophy, strength, and power stimulus for untrained and weaker individuals; however, stronger individuals may not receive the same eccentric (ECC) overload stimulus. Although AEL may be implemented throughout the training year to benefit hypertrophy, strength, and power output, this strategy is better suited for stronger individuals. When weaker and stronger individuals are exposed to PT, they are exposed to an ECC overload stimulus as a result of increases in the ECC force and ECC rate of force development. In conclusion, when choosing to utilize ECC training methods, the practitioner must integrate these methods into a holistic training program that is designed to improve the athlete’s performance capacity.

The purpose of the study was to compare the physiological responses of skeletal muscle to a resistance training (RT) program using repetition maximum (RM) or relative intensity (RISR). Fifteen well-trained males underwent RT 3 d·wk−1 for 10 weeks in either an RM group (n = 8) or RISR group (n = 7). The RM group achieved a relative maximum each day, while the RISR group trained based on percentages. The RM group exercised until muscular failure on each exercise, while the RISR group did not reach muscular failure throughout the intervention. Percutaneous needle biopsies of the vastus lateralis were obtained pre-post the training intervention, along with ultrasonography measures. Dependent variables were: Fiber type-specific cross-sectional area (CSA); anatomical CSA (ACSA); muscle thickness (MT); mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR); adenosine monophosphate protein kinase (AMPK); and myosin heavy chains (MHC) specific for type I (MHC1), type IIA (MHC2A), and type IIX (MHC2X). Mixed-design analysis of variance and effect size using Hedge’s g were used to assess within- and between-group alterations. RISR statistically increased type I CSA (p = 0.018, g = 0.56), type II CSA (p = 0.012, g = 0.81), ACSA (p = 0.002, g = 0.53), and MT (p < 0.001, g = 1.47). RISR also yielded a significant mTOR reduction (p = 0.031, g = −1.40). Conversely, RM statistically increased only MT (p = 0.003, g = 0.80). Between-group effect sizes supported RISR for type I CSA (g = 0.48), type II CSA (g = 0.50), ACSA (g = 1.03), MT (g = 0.72), MHC2X (g = 0.31), MHC2A (g = 0.87), and MHC1 (g = 0.59); with all other effects being of trivial magnitude (g < 0.20). Our results demonstrated greater adaptations in fiber size, whole-muscle size, and several key contractile proteins when using RISR compared to RM loading paradigms.

The purpose of this review was to provide a physiological rationale for the use of eccentric resistance training and to provide an overview of the most commonly prescribed eccentric training methods. Based on the existing literature, there is a strong physiological rationale for the incorporation of eccentric training into a training program for an individual seeking to maximize muscle size, strength, and power. Specific adaptations may include an increase in muscle cross-sectional area, force output, and fiber shortening velocities, all of which have the potential to benefit power production characteristics. Tempo eccentric training, flywheel inertial training, accentuated eccentric loading, and plyometric training are commonly implemented in applied contexts. These methods tend to involve different force absorption characteristics and thus, overload the muscle or musculotendinous unit in different ways during lengthening actions. For this reason, they may produce different magnitudes of improvement in hypertrophy, strength, and power. The constraints to which they are implemented can have a marked effect on the characteristics of force absorption and therefore, could affect the nature of the adaptive response. However, the versatility of the constraints when prescribing these methods mean that they can be effectively implemented to induce these adaptations within a variety of populations.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the kinetic and morphological adaptations that occur during distinct phases of a block periodized training cycle in weightlifters. Athlete monitoring data from nine experienced collegiate weightlifters was used. Isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and ultrasonography (US) results were compared to examine the effects of three specific phases of a training cycle leading up to a competition. During the high volume strength-endurance phase (SE) small depressions in rate of force development (RFD) but statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) increases in vastus lateralis cross-sectional area (CSA), and body mass (BM) were observed. The lower volume higher intensity strength-power phase (SP) caused RFD to rebound above pre-training cycle values despite statistically significant reductions in CSA. Small to moderate increases only in the earlier RFD time bands (