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We provide calibrated degree-day models to predict potential West Nile virus (WNV) transmission periods in Pennsylvania. We begin by following the standard approach of treating the degree-days necessary for the virus to complete the extrinsic incubation period (EIP), and mosquito longevity as constants. This approach failed to adequately explain virus transmission periods based on mosquito surveillance data from 4 locations (Harrisburg, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Williamsport) in Pennsylvania from 2002 to 2008. Allowing the EIP and adult longevity to vary across time and space improved model fit substantially. The calibrated models increase the ability to successfully predict the WNV transmission period in Pennsylvania to 70-80% compared to less than 30% in the uncalibrated model. Model validation showed the optimized models to be robust in 3 of the locations, although still showing errors for Philadelphia. These models and methods could provide useful tools to predict WNV transmission period from surveillance datasets, assess potential WNV risk, and make informed mosquito surveillance strategies.

Temperature‐based degree‐day models describe insect seasonality and to predict key phenological events. We expand on the use of a temperature‐based process defining timing of reproduction through the incorporation of female reproductive physiology for the invasive pentatomid species Halyomorpha halys, the brown marmorated stink bug. A five‐stage ranking system based on ovary development was able to distinguish between the reproductive statuses of field‐collected females. Application of this ranking method described aspects of H. halys’ seasonality, overwintering biology, and phenology across geographic locations. Female H. halys were collected in the US from NJ, WV, NC, OR, and two sites in PA in 2006–2008 (Allentown, PA only) and 2012–2014. Results identify that H. halys enters reproductive diapause in temperate locations in the fall and that a delay occurs in developmental maturity after diapause termination in the spring. Modification of the Snyder method to identify biofix determined 12.7‐hr photoperiod as the best fit to define initiation of reproduction in the spring. Applying the biofix, we demonstrated significant differences between locations for the rate at which the overwintering generation transition into reproductive status and the factors contributing to this difference require further study. For example, after including abiotic variables influencing development such as temperature and photoperiod (critical diapause cue), reproduction occurred earlier in OR and for an extended period in NJ. This data describe a method to investigate insect seasonality by incorporating physiological development across multiple regions that can clarify phenology for insects with overlapping generations.

Over two growing seasons, Isomate GBM-Plus tube-type dispensers releasing the major pheromone component of grape berry moth, Paralobesia viteana (Clemens) (Lepidoptera: Tortri- cidae), were evaluated in vineyards (Vitis spp.) in Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania. Dispensers were deployed in three different density-arrangement treatments: 124 dispensers per ha, 494 dis- pensers per ha, and a combined treatment with 124 dispensers per ha in the vineyard interior and 988 dispensers per ha at the vineyard border, equivalent to an overall density of 494 dispensers per ha. Moth captures and cluster infestation levels were compared at the perimeter and interior of vineyards receiving these different pheromone treatments and in vineyards receiving no pheromone. Orien- tation of male moths to pheromone-baited traps positioned at the perimeter and interior of vineyards was reduced as a result of mating disruption treatments compared with the nontreated control. These Þndings were consistent over both years of the study. Disruption of male moth captures in traps varied from 93 to 100% in treated vineyards, with the 494 dispensers per ha application rates providing signiÞcantly higher level of disruption than the 124 dispensers per ha rate, but only in 2007. Mea- surements of percentage of cluster infestation indicated much higher infestation at perimeters than in the interior of the vineyards in all three regions, but in both sample positions there was no signiÞcant effect of dispenser density on cluster infestation levels in either year. The contrasting results of high disruption of moth orientation to traps in vineyards that also had low levels of crop protection from this pheromone treatment are discussed in the context of strategies to improve mating disruption of this tortricid pest.

We develop individual-based Monte Carlo methods to explore how climate change can alter insect voltinism under varying greenhouse gas emissions scenarios by using input distributions of diapause termination or spring emergence, development rate, and diapause initiation, linked to daily temperature and photoperiod. We show concurrence of these projections with a field dataset, and then explore changes in grape berry moth, Paralobesia viteana (Clemens), voltinism that may occur with climate projections developed from the average of three climate models using two different future emissions scenarios from the International Panel of Climate Change (IPCC). Based on historical climate data from 1960 to 2008, and projected downscaled climate data until 2099 under both high (A1fi) and low (B1) greenhouse gas emission scenarios, we used concepts of P. viteana biology to estimate distributions of individuals entering successive generations per year. Under the low emissions scenario, we observed an earlier emergence from diapause and a shift in mean voltinism from 2.8 to 3.1 generations per year, with a fraction of the population achieving a fourth generation. Under the high emissions scenario, up to 3.6 mean generations per year were projected by the end of this century, with a very small fraction of the population achieving a fifth generation. Changes in voltinism in this and other species in response to climate change likely will cause significant economic and ecological impacts, and the methods presented here can be readily adapted to other species for which the input distributions are reasonably approximated.

Diapause in insects occurs in response to environmental cues, such as changes in photoperiod, and it is a major adaptation by which insects synchronize their activity with biotic resources and environmental constraints. For multivoltine agricultural insect pests, diapause initiation is an important consideration in management decisions, particularly toward the end of the growing season. The grape berry moth, Paralobesia viteana (Clemens), is the main insect pest affecting viticulture, and this insect responds to postsummer solstice photoperiods to initiate diapause. Because the range of grape berry moth extends from southern Canada to the southern United States, different populations are exposed to different photoperiodic regimes. We quantified the diapause response in grape berry moth populations from Arkansas, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Virginia, and observed latitudinal variation in diapause initiation. Populations from Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania responded significantly different than those from Arkansas, Texas, and Virginia. We also observed, as a consequence of our experiments, that the timing of our laboratory studies influenced grape berry moth's response to photoperiod, ceteris paribus. Experiments that were conducted when grape berry moth would be naturally in diapause resulted in a significant higher proportion of diapausing pupae at photoperiods (i.e., > 15 h) that generally do not induce diapause, suggesting that attention should be paid to the timing of behavioral and physiological experiments on insects. This relationship between photoperiod and diapause induction in grape berry moth across geographic regions will provide applicable knowledge to improve pest management decisions.

Climate change can cause major changes to the dynamics of individual species and to those communities in which they interact. One effect of increasing temperatures is on insect voltinism, with the logical assumption that increases in surface temperatures would permit multivoltine species to increase the number of generations per year. Though insect development is primarily driven by temperature, most multivoltine insect species rely on photoperiodic cues, which do not change from year-to-year or in response to climate warming, to initiate diapause. Thus, the relationship between climate change and voltinism could be complex. We use a phenology model for grape berry moth, Paralobesia viteana (Clemens), which incorporates temperature-dependent development and diapause termination, and photoperiod-dependent diapause induction, to explore historical patterns in year-to-year voltinism fluctuations. We then extend this model to predict voltinism under varying scenarios of climate change to show the importance of both the quality and quantity of accumulated heat units. We also illustrate that increases in mean surface temperatures 421C can have dramatic effects on insect voltinism by causing a shift in the ovipositional period that currently is subject to diapause-inducing photoperiods.

Ectotherms, such as insects, experience non-constant temperatures in nature. Daily mean temperatures can be derived from the daily maximum and minimum temperatures. However, the converse is not true and environments with the same mean temperature can exhibit very different diurnal temperate ranges. Here we apply a degree-day model for development of the grape berry moth (Paralobesia viteana, a significant vineyard pest in the northeastern USA) to investigate how different diurnal temperature range conditions can influence degree-day accumulation and, hence, insect life history. We first consider changes in diurnal temperature range independent of changes in mean temperatures. We then investigate grape berry moth life history under potential climate change conditions, increasing mean temperature via variable patterns of change to diurnal temperature range. We predict that diurnal temperature range change can substantially alter insect life history. Altering diurnal temperature range independent of the mean temperature can affect development rate and voltinism, with the magnitude of the effects dependent on whether changes occur to the daily minimum temperature (Tmin), daily maximum temperature (Tmax), or both. Allowing for an increase in mean temperature produces more marked effects on life history but, again, the patterns and magnitude depend on the nature of the change to diurnal temperature range together with the starting conditions in the local environment. The study highlights the importance of characterizing the influence of diurnal temperature range in addition to mean temperature alone.

Most transgenic corn seed is now treated with systemic neonicotinoid insecticides. To address potential direct nontarget effects of these combined technologies, 16 Carabidae species from 10 genera (Agonum, Amara, Anisodactylus, Bembidion, Chlaenius, Harpalus, Patrobus, Poecilus, Pterostichus, and Scarites) field-collected from corn were directly exposed to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry toxin-laden pollens and seed treatments in feeding and defined-dose bioassays. All adults readily fed on field or sweet corn pollens that expressed coleopteran-specific Cry3Bb1 or lepidopteran-targeting Cry1Ab/c, and no significant toxicity was observed. Adult survivorship ranged from 47 d for the predator Pterostichus melanarius (Illiger) to a year for the more omnivorous Scarites quadriceps Chaudoir, feeding solely on pollen containing 30–90 μg Cry3Bb1/g and water. In contrast, commercial doses of neonicotinoid seed treatments (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, or clothianidin) elicited nearly complete mortality for ...

We studied the effects of inundative releases of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma minutum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) on economic injury by grape berry moth, Endopiza viteana (Clemens) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Trichogramma minutum originally collected from natural host populations near North East, Pennsylvania, was mass produced in tobacco hornworm hosts and Mediterranean flour moth. We released T. minutum in border rows, where grape berry moth infestation is typically high, of experiment field station and commercial vineyards from 1996 to 1999. We recorded significant reductions in economic injury in plots where parasitoids were released. In vineyards with low to moderate grape berry moth abundance, four releases during the growing season were adequate in reducing damage at harvest to below 3%. In high-risk vineyards, T. minutum releases reduced damage to levels below 15%. The use of buckwheat as a cover crop to provide nectar in combination with parasitoid releases showed potential benefits in parasitoid activity. A biocarrier and Biosprayer™ were used in mechanized parasitoid-release operations, and no adverse effect on parasitoid emergence was recorded from parasitized eggs using this approach.

Thegrapeberry moth, Endopiza viteana (Clemens) feeds on wild and cultivated Vitis spp., causing economic damage in the latter. We studied incidence of pheromone trap catch data, and combined this with previous work on development and diapause to construct a comprehensive model of thetemporal dynamics of E. viteana. We explored the behavior of this model in six eastern United States locations along Lakes Erie and Michigan, the Finger Lakes in New York, and in Missouri and Virginia. Voltinism of E. viteana is insuenced by the accumulated growing degree-days before the postsummer solstice photoperiod at which eggs develop exclusively into diapausing pupae. Our model generally predicted two full and a partial third generation in Geneva, NY, whereas partial fourth generations existed in vineyards along Lakes Erie and Michigan. In more southern latitudes, such as Missouri and Virginia, the absence of a partial fourth generation would be rare. Also, our model suggested the presence of clinal latitudinal variation in diapause induction, with southern populations of E. viteana responding to shorter daylengths than northern populations. These predictions, based on average 10-yr surface temperatures (1991Ð2000), are supported by past observations and explain the variability in voltinism from year to year that has been reported in the northeastern United States and Niagara Peninsula of Canada.

We collected grape berry moth, Endopiza viteana (Clemens) (from cultivated and wild Vitis along Lake Erie in Pennsylvania and New York), and measured carbaryl susceptibility in first instars. A model of susceptibility was based on the concentration-mortality curve of laboratory-maintained colonies originating from wild Vitis with no prior history of carbaryl exposure, and a noncommercial vineyard with modest previous exposure to carbaryl. We estimated LC50 and LC90 for susceptible grape berry moth larvae at 45.4 and 2319 microg/ml, respectively. Bioassays on field-collected larvae from commercial vineyards in both states, where grape growers were abiding by current pest management guidelines for carbaryl use, revealed carbaryl resistance ratios from 7 to 71 at the LC50 level. With the loss or restriction of alternative chemical control tactics in the Food Quality Protection Act era, resistance management programs for grape berry moth should be immediately developed and implemented to regain the efficacy of this once effective insecticide and other related chemical compounds.

We studied pupal diapause maintenance and termination in Endopiza viteana, a pest of commercially grown grapes. We observed considerable variation in diapause intensity, which ranged from 5.5 to 10 mo under natural temperatures and photoperiods. Adult males tended to emerge from diapause slightly earlier than females, suggesting that E. viteana may be protandrous. In the field, low temperatures maintained diapause in overwintering pupae, and adult emergence began at ≈148 degree-days accumulated from 1 January. Photoperiod did not influence diapause termination in E. viteana. Overall, most adults emerged in spring at roughly the same time, regardless of the date at which pupae entered diapause; however, emergence was extended over a 6-wk period. Moreover, eggs oviposited by late-emerging females may experience photoperiods that would lead to diapause in pupae. Under natural conditions, extended adult emergence may result in overlapping generations; accordingly, coordinating the timing of control t...

During a survey for natural enemies of thegrape berry moth (GBM) Endopiza viteana(Clemens) in northwestern Pennsylvania, wefound that Trichogramma minutum Riley isthe only native egg parasitoid with thepotential to limit berry damage by preventingegg hatch. Natural parasitism, however, wasfound to be unreliable for providing economicpest suppression. Early season populations ofthe parasitoid are extremely low and may be theresult of inadequate alternative host eggs foroverwintering. Also, wild grapes and theirwooded habitats were found to be favored byT. minutum. Parasitism was low incultivated grapes and in wild grapes growingclose to commercial vineyards (possibly due tothe deterrent effect of insecticides) andhighest in sites ≈1.5 km from commercialvineyards. Adult T. minutum emergingfrom GBM eggs were exceptionally small andshowed little vigor. Parasitized eggs oftenfailed to produce adult parasitoids. Pre-adults in such eggs had poorly formed mouth-parts or lacked them altogether. Inundativereleases of laboratory-reared T. minutumin border rows of vineyards are suggested as apossible alternative to the current practice ofapplying carbamate and organophosphateinsecticides, which are inimical to beneficialarthropods.

Xylophagous insects often thrive on nutritionally suboptimal diets through symbiotic associations with microbes that supplement their nutritional requirements, particularly nitrogen. The wood-feeding cerambycid Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky) feeds on living, healthy host trees and harbors a diverse gut microbial community. We investigated gut microbial contributions to larval nitrogen requirements through nitrogen fixing and recycling (urea hydrolysis) processes, using a combination of molecular, biochemical, and stable isotope approaches. Genes and transcripts of conserved regions of the urease operon (ureC) and nitrogen fixing (nif) regulon (nifH) were detected in A. glabripennis eggs and larvae from naturally infested logs and from larvae reared on artificial diet. Significant nitrogen fixation and recycling were documented in larvae using (15)N2 gas and (15)N-urea, respectively. Subsequent (15)N-routing of incorporated recycled nitrogen into larval essential and nonessential amino acids was shown for (15)N-urea diet-fed larvae. Results from this study show significant gut microbial contributions to this insect's metabolic nitrogen utilization through nitrogenous waste product recycling and nitrogen fixation.

We modeled development in grape berry moth, Endopiza viteana (Clemens), which exploits wild and cultivated Vitis. Laboratory experiments were used to derive the temperature-dependent developmental curve for eggs, larvae, and pupae. We used linear interpolation to estimate stage-specific base temperature thresholds and degree-day requirements under laboratory conditions. We also estimated parameters of the Logan and Lactin nonlinear developmental models. Lastly, we conducted field experiments to evaluate the conventional degree-day model, which has a base threshold of 10°C; an improved degree-day model that was based on our laboratory observations; and nonlinear developmental models in predicting seasonal grape berry moth development. We concluded that the Logan nonlinear model provided the best estimates of grape berry moth field development, and an improved degree-day model should use 8.41°C as a minimum base temperature threshold and 423.9 as the egg-to-adult degree-day requirement. Also, after...

Photoperiod influences diapause induction in the grape berry moth, Endopiza viteana (=Polychrosis viteana), and eggs and neonates (

The grape cane gallmaker, Ampeloglypter sesostris (Leconte), is a native weevil that infests new shoots of wild and cultivated grapes (Vitis spp.). Females oviposit on the tender portions of new shoots, producing a reddish gall that can expand the shoot to twice its normal diameter. These galls can be quite numerous in eastern vineyards, and their effects are unknown. We studied the spatial distribution of grape cane gallmaker and its impact on berry size, sugar content, and nutrient and mineral uptake. We observed spatial trends in grape cane gallmaker distribution in vineyards adjacent to woodland margins, with the trend emanating from the woodline. In vineyards without woodland margins, there was little spatial dependency in grape cane gallmaker distribution in individual years. However, grape cane gallmaker density on a single vine was spatially cross-correlated between 2 yr. The presence of galls did not significantly affect berry quality, or the uptake of nutrients and minerals, and we conclude that grape cane gallmaker does not negatively impact berry quality or mature vine vigor.

The EMDS Consortium plans, designs, and oversees software development and integration for the EMDS suite of tools. This chapter presents an overview of the Consortium’s plans for the next version of EMDS. Our objective is to release an EMDS 5.0 that will support web-services and Microsoft’s workflow foundation. The 5.0 release will include major updates to the NetWeaver® engine, the Priority Analyst® engine, and the EMDS core.

We implemented an integrated ecological assessment using a GIS-based decision support system model for Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River (UPDE) and Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area (DEWA)—national park units with the mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Our assessment examined a variety of aquatic and terrestrial indicators of ecosystem components that reflect the parks’ conservation purpose and reference condition. Our assessment compared these indicators to ecological thresholds to determine the condition of park watersheds. Selected indicators included chemical and physical measures of water quality, biologic indicators of water quality, and landscape condition measures. For the chemical and physical measures of water quality, we used a water quality index and each of its nine components to assess the condition of water quality in each watershed. For biologic measures of water quality, we used the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera aquatic macroinvertebrate index and, secondarily, the Hilsenhoff aquatic macroinvertebrate index. Finally, for the landscape condition measures of our model, we used percent forest and percent impervious surface. Based on our overall assessment, UPDE and DEWA watersheds had an ecological assessment score of 0.433 on a −1 to 1 fuzzy logic scale. This score indicates that, in general, the natural resource condition within watersheds at these parks is healthy or ecologically unimpaired; however, we had only partial data for many of our indicators. Our model is iterative and new data may be incorporated as they become available. These natural parks are located within a rapidly urbanizing landscape—we recommend that natural resource managers remain vigilant to surrounding land uses that may adversely affect natural resources within the parks.

The toxicity of cryolite (sodium aluminofluoride) against the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), was determined by feeding larvae on cryolite-treated potato foliage. At 48 h, the LC50 was 15.3 and 18.5 µg/cm2 for 1st and 3rd instars, respectively. Larvae consumed less foliage at higher concentrations, and the reduction of leaf consumption was correlated to the concentration of cryolite. A feeding choice test indicated that cryolite does not repel or inhibit larval feeding. Field tests showed that the effectiveness of cryolite was stable at 2 hand 1 d after application but variable after 2 d, and that cryolite toxicity was dependent on the application rate and rainfall. Significantly less mortality caused by cryolite was observed at the rate of 6.5 kg/ha than at 12.9 kg/ha. Larval mortality was also significantly lower when 0.64 cm of simulated rainfall was applied compared with the treatments without rain.

Five insecticide application regimes were evaluated for two years to determine their influence on the development of esfenvalerate resistance by the Colorado potato beetle (CPB),Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say). These included sequential applications of esfenvalerate; two alternated uses of esfenvalerate, azinphosmethyl, endosulfan, oxamyl, andBacillus thuringiensis or cryolite; an IPM program; and one early season esfenvalerate application. Both CPB adults and first instars were tested for esfenvalerate resistance before and after insecticide applications. The LC50’s in the early 1992 season were correlated with values in the late 1991 season. However, over the winter, esfenvalerate resistance of CPB adults decreased, but was relatively stable for first instars. Esfenvalerate LC50’s late in the season were generally higher than values early in the season. Increases in esfenvalerate LC50’s were correlated with the number of esfenvalerate applications made in these fields during the growing season, with the greatest increase found in the sequential esfenvalerate treatment.

The grape berry moth, Paralobesia viteana (Clemens), is one of the most widespread and damaging insect pest of grapes in eastern North America. It was renamed from Endopiza viteana Clemens (Brown 2006). Larvae (Fig. 15.1c) of this pest bore into berries causing direct injury, reducing yield, and opening berries to opportunistic pathogens (Fig. 15.1d). Where this pest reaches high populations, berries may not be harvestable due to contamination by larvae or diseases that reduce fruit quality, forcing grape growers to leave heavily-infested regions of vineyards unharvested. In the past 50 years, prevention of damage and infestation by grape berry moth has been achieved primarily by the use of broad-spectrum insecticides, but increased restrictions on these chemicals in food crops and the risk of resistance to insecticides continues to stimulate the search for alternative control methods. This review includes the current status of knowledge about the biology of P. viteana and management strategies for its control. An earlier review of this pest and its management is provided by Dennehy et al. (1990a). We also refer readers to Ioriatti et al. (Chap. 14) for comparison with European species of berry-infesting Lepidoptera. In this chapter, we highlight future research opportunities that may improve the sustainability of vineyard integrated pest management programs while reducing crop damage from P. viteana.

Thresholds provide a quantitative basis upon which crop managers can decide whether arthropod pest populations are below, at, or exceeding a level that warrants the expense of activities to reduce the pests density. These interventions may be cultural, biological, or chemical control practices that reduce the pest population below the economic threshold. Thresholds are an essential component of an IPM program, and their use can lead to significant reduction in pesticides applied to crops and lower costs of production for farmers (Pedigo et al. 1986).

The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), is one of 13 insect and mite species in which development of insecticide resistance has become “critical.” In this paper, we review methods for controlling this important agricultural pest while managing insecticide resistance. Many of these strategies were incorporated into an integrated pest management (IPM) program for northeastern potato growers and encapsulated in a knowledge-based expert system (PotatoES). Three years of field trails evaluating the IPM expert system’s ability to act as a surrogate for a human specialist, its capability to manage Colorado potato beetle resistance development in experimental and commercial fields, and its impact on crop yields and production economics were conducted. Comparison of management recommendations made by PotatoES with those of a human IPM specialist demonstrated a high degree of agreement. Under experimental field conditions, Colorado potato beetle insecticide resistance development was always best managed in populations controlled with the IPM program. In commercial production settings, the expert system resulted in similar (under low insect pressure) or superior (under higher insect pressure) control of resistance development compared with grower practices. Implementation of the IPM program in commercial production was more expensive than standard practices, but resulted in higher crop yields and greater net profits. These results demonstrate the potential utility of know ledge-based approaches to integrated resistance management by showing that these systems can capture and faithfully represent the specialized crop, insect, and disease management knowledge of experienced individuals; manage resistance better than traditional insecticide application regimes; manage a crop profitably; and be practically used as a treatment in a field trial and, as such, be validated in terms of their worth in agricultural decision support.

Five insecticide application regimes were evaluated to investigate their influence on development of insecticide resistance in field populations of Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say). These regimes included season-long sequential esfenvalerate applications; two alternate uses of esfenvalerate, azinphosmethyl, endosulfan, oxamyl, and Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. tenebrionis ; an integrated pest management (IPM) program; and one early season esfenvalerate application. Response of Colorado potato beetle from each treatment to four insecticides was determined at the beginning and end of the growing season. Afilter-paper technique was used to estimate the concentration response relationship for first instars, and a topical application bioassay was used to measure response of adults. Differences in esfenvalerate susceptibility existed among treatments in the early season; these differences were correlated with frequency of esfenvalerate applications during the previous season. Populations from all field treatments at the end of season showed an increase in resistance to esfenvalerate and endosulfan but not to azinphosmethyl or oxamyl. Increases in resistance generally were related to the frequency that a specific chemical was applied. We observed significant correlations between increase in esfenvalerate resistance and number of esfenvalerate applications in a given regime; 10 applications resulted in a 3.6-fold increase. Direct selection by esfenvalerate appeared to be the primary factor in development of resistance in these populations. Consequently, we suggest that reduction of repeated pyrethroid use is critical for limiting resistance development. The lowest increase in esfenvalerate resistance was found in the IPM treatment, indicating that this management strategy was also effective in retarding resistance development.

The grape beny moth, Endopiza viteana (Clemens), is the key pest of cultivated grapes in the eastern United States and Canada (Gleissner 1943; Ker 1990). Laboratory techniques have been developed for large-scale rearing of this tortricid (Taschenberg 1951, 1969) using grape berries of Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae) and locally grown varieties. The use of grape berries is unsatisfactory because berries attract fruit flies, develop mold, and rot rapidly at normal laboratory temperatures (Taschenberg 1969). In this paper, we describe a diet for rearing E. viteana and the process that was undertaken in its development.

Ecosystem management is a collective term used to embrace a philosophy and set of methodologies associated with land-use manipulation or modification (Grumbine 1994; Kaufmann et al. 1995; Sedjo 1995; Lackey 1996). Broad-based issues dealt with under the umbrella of ecosystem management include biodiversity (Wilson 1992; Groombridge 1995; Heywood and Watson 1995), sustainability of ecological systems (Lubchenco et al. 1991; Risser et al. 1991; Covington and DeBano 1993; Levin 1993; Bormann et al. 1994a), maintenance of ecosystem health (Costanza et al. 1993; USDA Forest Service 1996), preservation of ecosystem integrity (Monnig and Byler 1992; Woodley et al. 1993). conservation and stewardship (Sample 1991; Callicott 1994; Alpert 1995), public participation (Wondolleck 1988; Knopp and Caldbeck 1990; Loikkanen 1995), and landscape management (Lucas 1991; Diaz and Apostol 1993; Urban 1993; Boyce 1995; Forman 1995a, 1995b).

The experiment was conducted in a mature vineyard at the Erie County Field Research Laboratory in North East, PA. Treatments were applied to Concord grapes trained to the single curtain (no tie) system. Treatments consisted of 6-vine plots arranged in a randomized complete block design and replicated 4 times. Each treatment row was separated by 2 untreated buffer rows. Applications were made using a Friend, small plot sprayer equipped with an FMC, vineyard boom. Treatments were applied at 100 gal/acre with pressure adjusted to 100 psi. The treatments were applied on 12 Jul. Precipitation for Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug and Sep was 3.64, 1.00, 0.75, 3.49, 3.07 and 3.25 inches, respectively. A pre-treatment count of leafhopper nymphs was taken on 9 Jul. Post-treatment evaluations was conducted 5, 14, 21 and 31 days after application. Evaluations consisted of randomly selecting 10 injured leaves per plot and recording the number of leafhopper nymphs.

The experiment was conducted in a 4-yr-old vineyard at the Lake Erie Regional Center for Grape Research and Extension in North East, PA. Treatments were applied to ‘Niagara’ grapes trained to the single curtain (no tie) system. Treatments consisted of four vine plots arranged in a completely random design and replicated 3 times. Each treatment row was separated by an untreated buffer row. Applications were made using an FMC, 50 gallon, three-point hitch sprayer equipped with an FMC, vineyard boom. Treatments were applied at 100 gal/acre with pressure adjusted to 100 psi. The treatments were applied on 19 Aug. Precipitation for Aug and Sep was 2.98 and 4.56 inches, respectively. A pre-treatment count of leafhopper nymphs was taken on 13 Aug. Post-treatment evaluations were conducted 7, 14 and 21 DAT. Evaluations consisted of randomly selecting 10 injured leaves per plot pre-treatment and 20 injured leaves per plot post-treatment and recording the number of leafhopper nymphs.

The experiment was conducted in a mature vineyard at the Erie County Field Research Laboratory in North East, PA. Treatments were applied to Concord grapes trained to the single curtain (no tie) system. Treatments consisted of 6-vine plots arranged in a randomized complete block design and replicated 4 times. Each treatment row was separated by 2 untreated buffer rows. Applications were made using a Friend, small plot sprayer equipped with an FMC, vineyard boom. Treatments were applied at 100 gal/acre with pressure adjusted to 100 psi. The treatments were applied on Aug. Nova 40 W was applied to the treatment areas on 10 Jun at 3 oz/acre and 28 Jul and 18 Aug at 4 oz/acre to control black rot and powdery mildew. Precipitation for May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep and Oct was 1.63, 2.10, 3.09, 4.62, 6.62 and 3.22 inches, respectively. A pretreatment count of leafhopper nymphs was taken on 17 Aug. Posttreatment evaluations were conducted 8, 14, and 20 days after application. Evaluations consisted of randomly selecting 20 injured leaves per plot (pretreatment) and 10 injured leaves per plot (posttreatment) and recording the number of leafhopper nymphs. Berry samples for determining degrees Brix were collected on 5 Nov. The apical portion from each of 10 basal clusters were collected from the center of each plot.

The experiment was conducted in a mature vineyard at the Erie County Field Research Laboratory in North East, PA. Treatments were applied to Concord grapes trained to the single curtain (no tie) system. Treatments consisted of 6-vine plots arranged in a randomized complete block design and replicated 4 times. Each treatment row was separated by two untreated buffer rows. Applications were made using a Friend, small plot sprayer equipped with an FMC, vineyard boom. Treatments were applied at 100 gal/acre with pressure adjusted to 100 psi. The treatments were applied on 20 Aug. Spray-aide was included with each treatment at a rate of 8 oz/100 gal to reduce the pH of the water from 7.8 to 5.6. Nova 40 W was applied to the treatment areas on 10 Jun at 3 oz/acre and 28 Jul and 18 Aug at 4 oz/acre to control black rot and powdery mildew. Precipitation for May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep and Oct was 1.63, 2.10, 3.09, 4.62, 6.62 and 3.22 inches, respectively. A pretreatment count of leafhopper nymphs was taken on 17 Aug. Posttreatment evaluations were conducted 7, 15, and 21 days after application. Evaluations consisted of randomly selecting 20 injured leaves per plot (pretreatment) and 10 injured leaves per plot (posttreatment) and recording the number of leafhopper nymphs. Berry samples for determining degrees Brix were collected on 30 Oct. The apical portion from each often basal clusters were collected from the center of each plot.

Concepts and methods for integrated pest management (IPM) have evolved over the past two decades. Several major research and development programs have been directed to IPM of forest insects. Each program was a successful venture in research that contributed to definition of IPM concepts and methods and increased the knowledge base on the insects. The IPM endeavor evolved from a research and development activity that initially emphasized scientific understanding to a technology transfer and implementation enterprise that today focuses on the use of knowledge for problem solving and decision making. These two tasks require integration, interpretation, and delivery of different representations of knowledge, including heuristic knowledge of experts, simulation results, and technical information. We present a computer-based methodology, the knowledge system environment (KSE), that addresses the issues of efficient use of knowledge for IPM problem solving and decision making. KSE uses conventional computer science and artificial intelligence techniques. It consists of six basic components: user interface, knowledge-based interpreter, connection management system, management information system, geographic information system, and data base management system. KSE is a general methodology that is suitable for addressing IPM in forestry, agriculture and the larger issue of natural resource management.

These tests were conducted in 2 established Concord grape vineyards in North East, PA. Plots consisted of 3 vines in a row replicated 4 times in location 1 and 3 times in location 2. Vine spacing was 9 ft between rows and 8 ft within rows. One spray was applied in each test using a 6-gal. True-test plant sprayer operated off a high pressure hose of a Myers 61256ET2 hydraulic vineyard sprayer. Operating pressure was 100 lb/in2. Spray was applied to runoff at approximately 100 gal of spray per acre. Triton AG-98 was the spreader sticker used at the rate of 2 oz per 100 gal. Evaluations consisted of counting the number of leafhopper nymphs on each of 10 randomly selected leaves within each plot. Pretreatment levels of leafhopper was obtained by counting nymphs on 360 leaves and 250 leaves within the study areas of test location 1 and 2 respectively.

These tests were conducted in 2 established Concord grape vineyards in North East, PA. Plots consisted of 3 vines in a row replicated 4 times in a randomized block designed at both study sites. Vine spacing was 9 ft between rows and 8 ft within rows. One spray was applied in each test using a small plot R&D sprayer with a single 80° LF nozzle at 30 psi. operating pressure. Spray volume was 40 gal per acre. Evaluations consisted of counting the number of leafhopper nymphs on each of 10 randomly selected damaged leaves within each plot.