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Many public agencies make foresters available to answer landowners’ land management questions. We gathered data about landowner calls to private forest management (PFM) foresters employed by a Minnesota state agency in 2017 and 2018. We used a mailed questionnaire to assess the outcomes of these contacts, including land management actions taken and factors most influential the landowner’s subsequent decision process. The most common topic landowners called about was enrolling in a property tax program, followed by harvesting and planting trees, obtaining financial assistance, and controlling forest pests. Eighteen months after the initial call, implementation rates and intent were high, ranging from 73%–91%. Across management actions, information from a PFM forester, likelihood of timely implementation, and expected benefit were highly influential. PFM calls also informed landowners about additional land management actions, many of which they implemented. Our results offer new insight into the value of landowner contact with public sector foresters.

Virtually all states have developed best management practices (BMPs) to mitigate potential adverse effects associated with timber harvesting. This study examined how BMP implementation on Minnesota’s family forest lands varied according to whether the land had a forest management plan, the timber sale was administered by a forester, or a written timber harvesting contract was used. Analysis of field monitoring data from 174 commercial timber harvesting sites on family forest lands found that BMP implementation is only modestly influenced by a forest management plan, supervising forester, or timber harvesting contract. Supervision of a forester had the greatest influence, with six guidelines implemented differently. In contrast, differences were found for just two BMPs with a forest management plan and only one with a written timber harvesting contract. When timber sales were administered by a forester, forest management guidelines generally related to management of the land-water interface were implemented to a higher standard, with significant increases observed for avoidance of infrastructure in filter strips, use of water diversion and erosion control structures, avoiding unnecessary wetland and waterbody crossings, and slash management. Higher timber utilization efficiency (within leave tree guidelines) was also found when a professional forester supervised the timber sale. Study Implications: We examine how BMP implementation on family forest lands varies with three types of supervisory and planning assistance: a forest management plan for the property, sale administration by a professional forester, and a written timber harvesting contract. Field monitoring data from 174 commercial timber harvests on family forest lands indicate that BMP implementation is only modestly influenced by any single form of assistance. Supervision by a forester had the greatest influence, increasing use of four guidelines related to management of the land-water interface. Results may help to inform best practices for landowner assistance and planning.

Information collected by the National Woodland Owner Survey, supplemented with state forest property tax program, land use, and socio-economic data, was used to develop a national characterization of participants enrolled in state forest property tax programs and their forest land. Family forest owners who owned a single parcel of forest land, were at least slightly familiar with their state's property tax program, and whose forest land qualified to participate in their state's program were included in the analysis. Landowner and parcel characteristics were organized into eight categories hypothesized to distinguish participants and non-participants. The analysis found that enrolled lands are larger, more likely found in predominantly forested landscapes, more actively managed, and less likely used for hunting than non-enrolled forest land. While enrollment in a state forest property tax program is positively associated with higher population density, no correlation was found between enrollment tendency and land development pressure, as defined in this analysis. The owners of enrolled forest lands generally report higher household incomes than their non-enrolled counterparts. However, owners whose forest land is enrolled in a forest property tax program do not express greater concern about the level of property tax levied on their forest land, and are no less likely to divest their land than non-enrollees. The information generated from this study may help state forest property tax program administrators and public policy makers improve the ability of these programs to achieve their intended objectives, such as incentivizing the production of timber, other ecosystem goods and services, and forest land protection, through more effective marketing and targeting efforts.

Forest ecosystems provide services that can be promoted by state property tax incentive programs. A 50-state review in 2014–2015 determined that such programs were used to foster services such as protection of soil and water resources, habitat for fish and wildlife, aesthetically pleasing landscapes, and the production of timber and wood fiber. The review determined that nearly 210 million acres (85 million hectares [ha]) were enrolled in 58 different state property tax programs, an estimated 44% of private forest area eligible for enrollment. Over 3.85 million participants benefited from the programs and collectively received more than $1.61 billion in reduced annual property taxes. The average annual value of the reduction was $7.68 per acre ($19.00 per ha).

A financial analysis of two methods commonly used by public land management agencies to collect payment for stumpage sold was carried out using data from the St. Louis County Minerals and Land Department (SLCMLD) in northern Minnesota. The two payment methods evaluated were scale (also called pay-as-cut and consumer scale) where the buyer only pays for timber harvested and lump sum (also called sold-on-appraised-volume or SOAV) where a buyer pays for the entire tract’s estimated volume, regardless of the amount of timber actually harvested. The analysis found no significant difference in gross timber sale revenue collected by the SLCMLD under the two payment methods Scaled timber sales incurred an additional $323 in administrative costs per timber sale compared to lump sum timber sales. This increase in administrative costs represents less than 1% of the timber value contained in the average SLCMLD timber sale. Differences in the standards agencies use to estimate merchantable stand volume of a timber sale and the administrative time spent processing timber sales can impact the financial costs associated with each timber payment method.

A national assessment of how the number of parcel owners influence family forest land management and use decisions in the US was conducted using a subset of the US Forest Service’s National Woodland Owner Survey Dataset. Seventy-two percent of single parcel family forest land ownership respondents of at least 4.05 ha had multiple owners. The extent to which past land management practices and future intentions for the land are influenced by the number of owners of an individual parcel was evaluated. We also examined how landowner decision-making networks are related to past practices and future intentions. Contrary to previous findings, our research suggests that having more than one owner does not necessarily reduce the likelihood that a variety of different forest management activities, including commercial timber harvesting or wildlife habitat improvement, will occur. Moreover, we found that one-owner forested parcels are less likely to have experienced activities like harvesting, invasive plant removal, fire hazard reduction, wildlife habitat improvement, and cost-share program participation than parcels with two or more than two owners. We also found that family member involvement in landowner decision-making has a minimal effect on past and planned land management actions, while the involvement of a forester or land manager in decision-making increases the likelihood many land management actions have been or will be undertaken.

Despite the common management practice of salvage logging in recently naturally disturbed forests, little is known about the contribution salvage logging operations make to wood markets or their importance in the wood supply chain. The objective of this study was to assess the contribution of salvage wood to the total volume of wood sold on state and county lands in Minnesota and Wisconsin, USA. Analyzing data collected from 2010 to 2014, salvage wood made up 10% of the 27.2 million m3 of wood sold by these ownerships during this period, a percentage similar to the total amount of forest area that was disturbed by insects, disease, weather damage, or some other natural agent across state and/or county lands over the same time period. Where a widespread forest disturbance was observed (e.g. a catastrophic windstorm that resulted in blowdown), salvage sales offered more volume per sale and were larger in size compared to non-salvage sales. We conclude that when large-scale disturbances occur, there ...

Field-based public natural resource managers in the Lake States (MI, MN, WI) were surveyed for their perspectives on various aspects of private forest land parcelization. This includes their perceptions of recent changes in parcelization activity, drivers and impacts, mitigation strategies, and ability to influence parcelization. Their perspectives on the implications private forest land parcelization has on public land management were also sought. Across the Lake States, most public natural resource managers have witnessed an increasing frequency of forest land parcelization. They consider development potential and proximity to population centers to be the most influential driver of parcelization, with decreased timber supply and loss of recreational access on private land the most likely outcomes. The study documented important perceived linkages between private forest land parcelization and public land management, such as increased conflicts on public land, decreased access to public land, and increased demand for and cost of managing public land.

Forests act as carbon sinks and can make significant contributions to climate change mitigation efforts. In Norway, family forest owners own 80% of productive forestland and play a central role in the management of the country's forests. Yet little is known about whether these landowners would be interested in increasing carbon sequestration on their land and selling carbon credits. Only a handful of studies have examined the factors that motivate family forest owners to participate in carbon offset programs, and all of these studies have been conducted in the United States. This study addresses this information gap using data from a mail survey of 1500 Norwegian family forest owners. A logistic regression model was developed to examine the effect of various carbon program, forestland, and landowner characteristics on participation in a hypothetical carbon offset program. Results suggest that there is a considerable amount of interest among Norwegian family forest owners and that the most important predictors of participation are payment amount offered, perceived barriers posed by management actions, importance placed on non-market forest amenities, and attitudes towards climate change.

A major challenge associated with forest land parcelization, defined as the subdivision of forest land holdings into smaller ownership parcels, is that little information exists on how to measure its severity and judge its impacts across forest landscapes. To address this information gap, an on-line survey presented field-based public natural resource managers in the Lake States of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan with four private forest ownership patterns, each containing the same total forest area, number of parcels, and average parcel size. Survey respondents ranked each landscape from most to least parcelized based on the degree to which each ownership pattern was perceived to adversely impact three forest-based goods and services: timber production, recreational access, and wildlife habitat. Using an exploded logit model, respondents' rankings of parcelization impact were found to be consistent, regardless of the forest good or service evaluated. Rankings were also not influenced by the respondent's professional discipline, location, length of professional experience, or employer. Of the four parcelization metrics evaluated, the Gini Coefficient and Adjusted Mean metrics appear to best capture the forest land ownership patterns that natural resource professionals are most concerned about, suggesting those metrics may be useful indicators by which to assess parcelization impact.

Maple syrup is an important non-timber forest product derived from the sap of the sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marshall). However, maple syrup producers are facing a diversity of challenges, including: potential range shifts in the maple resource; increasing variability in the timing, duration and yield of sap flow and syrup operations; invasive species, pests and diseases; and intergenerational land and business transfer challenges. Members of Maple Syrup Producer Associations in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan were surveyed to learn about their operations, adaptation strategies, concerns, and information needs. While many respondents indicated they have undertaken or plan to undertake adaptation activities, only 11% had done so out of specific concern over changing climate conditions. Climate-motivated activities included: being prepared to tap earlier and utilizing newer technology such as vacuum tubing or reverse osmosis to enhance sap collection and processing efficiency. Respondents were generally unlikely to consider planting climate-resilient maple cultivars or tapping trees other than sugar maple. They expressed the greatest concerns over tree health and forest pests, as well as their physical ability and family member interest to continue their operations. Boil season variability and weather issues were viewed with less concern. Respondents were generally optimistic that they can adapt to future conditions, likely in large measure through the adoption of new technologies, and they expect their syrup production levels to slightly increase in the future. If future climate scenarios play out, however, additional planning and adaptation strategies may be called for, particularly as they relate to forest health and productivity issues.

Norway has set ambitious targets for increasing bioenergy production. Forest residue extraction levels are currently very low, but residues have the potential to be an important component of the wood energy supply chain. A representative sample of Norwegian nonindustrial private forest owners having at least 8 ha (20 acres) of productive forest land was surveyed about their willingness to supply logging residues for wood energy production. About 59 % responded that they were willing to do so. Logistic regression analyses revealed that the following factors were positively associated with the likelihood of being willing to supply logging residues: total forest area, education level, living in a region with active timber markets and a history of forest production, and having positive perceptions of residue extraction and forestry’s role in mitigating climate change. Four variables were negatively associated with the likelihood to supply residues: living on property, being older than 65 years, having family or friends who are opposed to residue extraction, and having negative perceptions of residue extraction. The study provides insight regarding nonindustrial forest owners’ attitudes towards extraction of forest residues that may aid policy-makers designing effective means to meet national bioenergy production goals.

Using data collected from a series of focus groups, this study examines how landowner assistance programs (which may include management plans, cost-share, technical assistance and advice, and education components) affect family forest owner behaviour in the USA. Not surprisingly, most owners who participated in assistance programs had pre-existing management objectives. Participation in the management plan and cost-share components was found to facilitate the stewardship of private forests by assisting and reinforcing the behaviour of those landowners who already intend to manage their land in some pre-conceived manner. Advice and educational components appeared to do more in terms of introducing owners to new ideas. The mix of components offered as part of a landowner assistance program should consider the goals of the program and which components will be most effective in achieving those goals.

Family forest owners within the United States could potentially make significant contributions to sequestration efforts. However, we expect that landowners will need assistance if they are to successfully implement carbon management techniques and/or navigate through complex carbon market requirements. State forestry agencies were surveyed to gather their perspectives on carbon management and carbon market participation, assess current demand for assistance, and identify the types of state-sponsored programs available to landowners. Currently, only a few states have carbon management or carbon market assistance programs. A majority of states report that demand for carbon assistance is low, and few landowners are aware of carbon management or markets. Interestingly, and in contrast to previous estimates, demand and interest often appear unrelated to a state’s physical forest sequestration capacity. Although many attributes of a carbon market present barriers, states appear to agree that certain landowner characteristics may increase participation interest.

In this study, we examine how family forest owners who receive various types of assistance differ from unassisted landowners with respect to their forestland management practices, attitudes and concerns, and future management, use, and ownership intentions. We do so by utilizing a national database containing information on private forest owners and the forestland they own. By defining an assisted landowner according to several attributes contained in this database (e.g., has a forest management plan, received cost-share assistance, or received advice), important similarities and differences between recipients and nonrecipients of various types of assistance are identified. The study shows that assisted and unassisted landowners are different with respect to several characteristics of the owners and the forestland they own, land management practices undertaken, and reasons for forest landownership. For example, assisted landowners are more likely to harvest timber and improve wildlife habitat than the unassisted owners. Yet no distinctions are found between assisted and unassisted landowners with respect to their plans to either subdivide or sell their land. In many cases, the differences between assisted and unassisted landowners are not related to the type of assistance the landowner received.

In 2012, focus groups were organized with individuals owning 20+ acres in the Lake States region of the United States (Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin) to discuss various issues related to forest carbon offsetting. Focus group participants consisted of landowners who had responded to an earlier mail-back survey (2010) on forest carbon offsets. Two focus groups were held per state with an average of eight participants each (49 total). While landowner participant types varied, overall convergence was reached on several key issues. In general, discussion results found that the current payment amounts offered for carbon credits are not likely, on their own, to encourage participation in carbon markets. Landowners are most interested in other benefits they can attain through carbon management (e.g., improved stand species mix, wildlife, and trails). Interestingly, landowner perceptions about the condition of their own forest land were most indicative of prospective interest in carbon management. Landowners who felt that their forest was currently in poor condition, or did not meet their forest ownership objectives, were most interested in participating. While the initial survey sought landowner opinions about carbon markets, a majority of focus group participants expressed interest in general carbon management as a means to achieve reduced property taxes.

Studies have repeatedly documented high property taxes as being a major determinant of a landowner's decision to divest of its forest land. To empirically investigate the relationship between property tax burden and forest land sale activity, property tax data and over 5300 Minnesota forest land sale records from 2000 to 2008 were assembled. Analyses were carried out to identify statistically significant relationships between several measures of private forest land sale activity and forest land property tax burden. The analyses failed to find a statistically positive relationship between the two. Statistically significant negative associations were found between some measures of forest property tax burden and forest land sale frequency, indicating forest land sales activity actually decreased with increasing property tax burden. While high property taxes, no doubt, influence forest land sale decisions, the findings from this study suggest its influence may not be as pervasive as once thought.

The USDA Forest Service’s Forest Stewardship Program (FSP) is the nation’s most prominent private forestry assistance program. We examined the FSP using a multiple analytic approach: analysis of annual FSP accomplishments, survey of state FSP coordinators, analytic comparison of family forest owners receiving and not receiving forestry practice assistance, and focus groups with family forest owners. We found the FSP reaches a small fraction of eligible landowners; states use FSP funds to address local private forestland issues; landowners obtaining assistance commonly associated with the FSP (e.g., management plans) differ from others in sociodemographics, ownership objectives, and land management actions but not in terms of intent to sell/subdivide forestland; and traditional FSP activities are not influencing inactive family forest owners to become active managers. We believe current practices (e.g., state-level flexibility) help the FSP reach its goals, alternative assistance-related efforts may increase the reach of the FSP and support strategic goals, and data collection improvements may enrich future FSP evaluations.

All fifty states in the United States offer preferential forest property tax programs (PFPTPs) that defer, reduce, or eliminate property taxes on enrolled private forest lands, to foster ecosystem services. Among individual programs, there is wide variability in enrollment levels, as well as program structure and administration. Past research has explored patterns of enrollment in individual states, but to our knowledge has never been conducted at the national level. We used binary logistic regression with multiple imputation for missing data to explore the landowner, land, and program characteristics that correlate with likelihood of enrollment in a PFPTP. We found that most landowner objectives and concerns, including those that would appear to be linked to program enrollment, such as concern about the level of taxes, were generally not correlated with likelihood of enrollment. Owning more forest area was correlated with higher likelihood of enrollment. The link of enrollment to population density suggested that enrollment is higher in moderate densities, with higher and lower densities having lower enrollment, possibly due to conflicting incentives for enrollment as land values increase. Program characteristics were negatively correlated with likelihood of enrollment, especially those that restrict uses or management. The owner’s desire for wooded land to stay wooded and higher levels of penalty for program withdrawal were positively correlated with likelihood of enrollment and average rates of tax reductions were not significantly correlated, suggesting that landowners may see programs as a method of conserving and protecting their forestland in the future more than as simply a way to save money.

Focus groups were conducted with family forest owners to investigate the effect of government tax policies on their decisions regarding their land. Two groups each were held in New Hampshire, South Carolina, Alabama, Wisconsin, and Washington, USA, one with owners enrolled in the state preferential property tax program for forested land and one with owners who were not so enrolled. Each focus group consisted of 8–10 owners and lasted approximately 2 h. Overall, only two beneficial federal income tax provisions (treatment of timber income as a long-term capital gain and timber depletion deductions) and five federal estate tax provisions (the effective exemption for estates, the annual exclusion for gifts, use of a will, the step-up in basis for inherited assets, and the effective exemption for gifts) were brought up in over half of the groups. Groups composed of tax program enrollees tended to discuss federal income tax provisions more distinct times than those composed of tax program non-enrollees, and tended to be familiar with more federal estate tax provisions; otherwise, there was little difference between them. Misconceptions about tax provisions were common. As well, groups in every region noted the negative effects of tax uncertainty and that not all professionals are knowledgeable about federal taxes as they apply to family forest owners.

Forest property taxes have been identified as one of the major driving forces behind forest loss and parcelization. Among various policy alternatives for reducing the burden of forest property taxes on landowners, preferential property tax programs have been widely used across states. Existing research has mostly focused on individual property tax programs, particularly those based on current use valuation, while little has been done to document, analyze and compare programs across states. By examining survey data from state preferential property tax program administrators across the United States, this paper describes the commonalities and differences among states regarding their preferential property tax programs, provides a preliminary understanding of the relationship between state preferential property tax policy and trends in private forest conditions, and identifies issues related to the effectiveness of state preferential property tax programs and private forest land management and conservation. Our analysis revealed three fundamental disconnects: (1) Program attributes that were previously considered to be important for preferential property tax programs to be effective in retaining forest land and fostering management did not consistently correlate with program effectiveness as viewed by the administrators of these programs; (2) These program attributes did not consistently correlate with actual program effectiveness as measured at the state level by forest trend indicators used in this study (i.e., change in private forest land cover, change in average size of private forest holdings, extent to which private forest land is being actively managed); and (3) The self-assessed program effectiveness did not consistently correlate with actual program effectiveness, either. The various ways in which the effectiveness of preferential property tax programs is defined and measured contribute to explaining these disconnects. It is particularly important for researchers and policy makers to be explicit about how they define and measure effectiveness and the scale on which they conduct their analysis before assessing and comparing programs or suggesting improvement strategies.

An important and potentially underused source of biomass that could be utilized in energy production is from nonindustrial private woodlands. We employ the Theory of Planned Behavior to estimate the social availability of woody biomass as a function of landowner behavior intent, landowner characteristics, forest land characteristics, and biomass price on stated willingness to harvest biomass in conjunction with a commercial timber harvest. A mail survey was administered to 1109 nonindustrial private woodland owners in a 26county region in northeast Minnesota and northwest Wisconsin during the fall of 2009. Using binary logistic regression, we found payment level offered to harvest biomass plays a significant role in landowners’ decisions, but that non-monetary factors are also important. Landowner attitudes and opinions regarding soil impacts, aesthetics, and energy independence were important predictors of stated willingness to harvest. Social norms as manifested through the influence of neighbors were also significant. These findings expand existing research and are useful for profiling nonindustrial private woodland owners to identify sustainable sources of biomass to supply a burgeoning bioenergy sector in the Lake States.

Several metrics have been cited in the literature as being useful characterizations of forest land parcelization. Yet no agreed-upon standard measure exists which creates difficulties in identifying where parcelization is occurring as well as comparing the magnitude of its occurrence across different studies and geographic regions. We evaluated three existing (average parcel size, Gini coefficient, Shannon Entropy index) and a new metric (adjusted mean parcel size) for their usefulness in characterizing the extent to which a private forested landscape has become parcelized. We applied these measures to 410 forested townships in a contiguous, six-county area of northern Minnesota encompassing nearly 3.64 million hectares. Our analyses show that each metric typically describes a different pattern of parcelization and highlight problems owing to the fact that each metric appears to capture different aspects of ownership patterns within a landscape. We demonstrate the choice of metric, landscape scale, spatial and physical ownership features, and threshold for determining when a landscape is parcelized can greatly influence our conclusions regarding parcelization. Thus, careful consideration must be given to these factors when attempting to analyze a parcelized landscape, and caution is urged in interpreting and comparing parcelization studies where one or more of these factors vary.

The nation's family forest lands can be an important contributor to carbon sequestration efforts. Yet very little is known about how family forest landowners view programs that enable them to sell carbon credits generated from the growth of their forest and the compensation that would be required to encourage a meaningful level of participation. To address this information gap, we conducted a study to identify and quantify family forest landowner interest in participating in a voluntary carbon market trading program in the Lake States, USA. A mail survey was administered to 2,200 randomly selected family forest owners in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. The questionnaire assessed landowner interest in participating in a hypothetical carbon credit trading program and sought information on landowner objectives and practices, perspectives on carbon credit programs and forest land characteristics. A total of 850 usable responses were received. A logistic regression model was developed to examine the factors affecting participation in a forest carbon offset project by family forest owners and estimate landowner participation probability. Results show that carbon program characteristics alongside landowner and parcel characteristics are associated with the decision to participate in a carbon credit program. Specifically, carbon credit payment amount, contract length, gender, value placed on other non-market forest amenities, need for additional income, attitude towards climate change, absentee status, land tenure and total acres owned were found to be significant determinants. Our findings indicate that carbon sequestration management may align with the ownership goals of many family forest owners in the Lake States.

In the US, relatively little research has been done in recent years to inform the development and implementation of cumulative impact assessment (CIA) policy. Past studies have primarily focused on the requirements and practices of the National Environmental Policy Act, but little is known about the challenges and opportunities relating to CIA practices at the state level. By analysing data from a national survey of state environmental review programme administrators, this study identified the inability of state programmes to facilitate CIA practices as a major barrier to effective implementation, particularly reflected by the perceived lack of explicit procedures and data for conducting CIA. Important strategies for improvement included adopting detailed guidelines specifying what to include in an assessment and developing institutional mechanisms to encourage state agency co-ordination. Some differences in perception were observed across programmes due to the different types of state-level environmental...

An econometric analysis was conducted to assess how tract, policy, and administrative factors of public timber sales influence willingness to pay for stumpage. To do so, we obtained an electronic database containing multiple years of MN DNR timber-sale records. Each record contained information on the timber sale's total appraised volume, species-product composition, tract acres, date of sale, date of sale expiration, method of sale, purchasing firm, and tract location. A total of 4,395 records of MN DNR timber tracts sold from 2001 to 2006 were analyzed. By incorporating physical, ecological, policy, and administrative factors of a timber sale, our model was able to explain approximately 63% of the variation in the natural log of stumpage prices. Sale-specific characteristics found to be significant drivers of stumpage prices are species-product composition, tract location, end-product market conditions, season of sale, harvestable volume density, length of the sale contract, seasonal operating restrictions, total appraised volume, and auction method.

Timber harvesting residues, specifically the nonmerchantable tree tops and limbs associated with a commercial roundwood harvest, have the capacity to supply substantial feedstock for energy production. Phone interviews of Minnesota's logging business owners who process residual woody biomass for energy using chippers and grinders were conducted in summer 2008 to characterize their practices on harvesting and processing these residues and to collect qualitative data describing biomass harvesting opportunities and constraints. Minnesota's logging businesses are highly variable with respect to many aspects of woody biomass harvesting, such as preferred tree species, equipment configurations, strategies for collecting and processing residual biomass, and utilization efficiency. Factors cited as having a substantial influence on future biomass harvesting opportunities included the environmental benefits of burning woody biomass over traditional nonrenewable fuels and the potential for biomass harvesting to positively affect wildlife habitat and forest health. Low prices received for delivered wood chips and grindings, high fixed and variable operating costs, and resource uncertainty about future harvesting restrictions due to environmental concerns were cited as important issues that could limit growth in the state's woody biomass harvesting sector.

Selected forestry officials in each of the 13 western states were surveyed in 2005 concerning their opinions on the public and private financial incentive programs available to nonindustrial private forest owners in their state. The officials were asked to name and describe the programs and to assess forest owners' awareness of each one, its appeal among owners aware of it, its effectiveness in encouraging sustainable forestry and enabling owners to meet their objectives, and the percent of program practices that remain in place and enrolled acres that remain in forest over time. They also were asked to suggest ways to improve the programs. The FSP, FLEP, and FLP were among the top-rated federal programs. Programs sponsored by states and private organizations tended to be more narrowly targeted than federal programs and scored well for specific attributes of sustainability. The officials' suggestions for program improvement largely centered on increasing visibility and availability, ensuring long-term consistency in funding, and simplifying the application and approval processes.

We evaluated how the management and use of public forest land administered by Minnesota county land departments changed once these forests were transferred to private ownership. To characterize these changes, the individuals and organizations who purchased forest land from Minnesota's county land departments were surveyed using a mail questionnaire. The sale of county forest land did not appear to produce noticeable changes in timber harvesting or the level of investment in forest management. However, the level of professional forestry expertise overseeing the management of these lands declined considerably. Additionally, while nearly all forest land managed by county land departments is open to the public for recreation, more than half became posted to prohibit public trespass after it was sold. From 2002–2005, county land departments generated approximately US$12.3 million in real annual net income, or US$4.53 per acre. When comparing the capitalized value of annual net revenue generated from the land to its market value, retaining county forest land in public ownership cannot be rationalized solely on its ability to generate income. Yet public ownership of these lands can be justified when the full suite of benefits derived from the forest land's public recreational, environmental, and amenity values is considered.

We measure the extent and location of forest parcelization activity in a heavily forested Minnesota county between 1999 and 2006 and examine both the immediate and extended relationship between parcelization and development activity. We document forest land parcelization and development activity over time utilizing readily available real estate parcel data. Despite widespread perceptions of rapidly increasing rates of parcelization, we observed no significant positive or negative trend in parcelization activity in Itasca County during the study period: an average of only 0.4% of private forest land was parcelized each year. Parcelization was more common near cities, water, and public lands. While the overall rate of parcelization observed in this study may seem meager, closer examination of specific parcels suggest that parcelization is intimately tied to development activity and that this development occurs not long after parcelization.

Following the intent of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, many states have adopted policies and procedures directing state agencies and local government units to evaluate the potential environmental impacts of development projects prior to their undertaking. In contrast to a rich literature on federal requirements, current understanding of state environmental review is narrowly focused and outdated. This paper seeks to provide information on the landscape of state environmental review policy frameworks. The paper identifies 37 states with formal environmental review requirements through a document review of state statutes, administrative rules and agency-prepared materials, and confirms this finding through a survey of state administrators. A two-tier classification is used to distinguish states based on the approach taken to address environmental review needs and the scope and depth of relevant policies and procedures implemented. This paper also provides a discussion of policy and programme...

article i nfo Cumulative impact assessment (CIA) is the process of systematically assessing a proposed action's cumulative environmental effects in the context of past, present, and future actions, regardless of who undertakes such actions. Previous studies have examined CIA efforts at the federal level but little is known about how states assess the cumulative impacts of nonfederal projects. By examining state environmental review statutes, administrative rules, agency-prepared materials, and a national survey of the administrators of state environmental review programs, this study identifies the legal and administrative frameworks for CIA. It examines current CIA practice, discusses the relationship between CIA policy and its implementation, and explores the opportunities for improvement. The results of the study show that twenty-nine state environmental review programs across twenty-six states required the assessment of cumulative environ- mental impacts. More than half of these programs have adopted specific procedures for implementing their policies. Some programs assessed cumulative impacts using a standard review document, and others have created their own documentations incorporated into applications for state permits or funding. The majority of programs have adopted various scales, baselines, significance criteria, and coordination practices in their CIA processes. Mixed methods were generally used for data collection and analysis; qualitative methods were more prevalent than quantitative methods. The results also suggest that a program with comprehensive and consistent environmental review policies and procedures does not always imply extensive CIA requirements and practices. Finally, this study discusses the potential for improving existing CIA processes and promoting CIA efforts in states without established environmental review programs.

Hunters report diminishing access to private forest land in the United States due to increasing numbers of landowners posting their land against trespass. While many hunters assume posting is synonymous with prohibited access, the relationship between the two is not clear. To address this issue, we predicted the likelihood a family forest landowner who posts their property will, in fact, allow hunter access. Factors that influence this likelihood were identified. We found that the probability of a landowner who posts allowing access was approximately 47%, with all explanatory variables evaluated at their means. Factors decreasing the likelihood of access included a perception that allowing access would interfere with their own hunting or result in property damage. Factors increasing the likelihood of allowing access included increasing parcel size, a perception of excellent hunting opportunity on their parcel, and a high percentage of the surrounding area that is open to public hunting.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia and is especially prevalent in the elderly. Because aging is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes mellitus, and insulin resistance may contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), anti-diabetic agents (thiazolidinediones-TZDs) are being studied for the treatment of cognitive decline associated with AD. These agents normalize insulin sensitivity in the periphery and can improve cognition and verbal memory in AD patients. Based on evidence that Ca(2+) dysregulation is a pathogenic factor of brain aging/AD, we tested the hypothesis that TZDs could impact Ca(2+) signaling/homeostasis in neurons. We assessed the effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone (TZDs) on two major sources of Ca(2+) influx in primary hippocampal cultured neurons, voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel (VGCC) and the NMDA receptor (NMDAR). VGCC- and NMDAR-mediated Ca(2+) currents were recorded using patch-clamp techniques, and Ca(2+) intracellular levels were monitored with Ca(2+) imaging techniques. Rosiglitazone, but not pioglitazone reduced VGCC currents. In contrast, NMDAR-mediated currents were significantly reduced by pioglitazone but not rosiglitazone. These results show that TZDs modulate Ca(2+)-dependent pathways in the brain and have different inhibitory profiles on two major Ca(2+) sources, potentially conferring neuroprotection to an area of the brain that is particularly vulnerable to the effects of aging and/or AD.

Selected forestry officials in each of the 20 northern states were surveyed concerning their opinions on the public and private financial incentive programs available to nonindustrial private forest owners in their state. The officials were asked to name and describe the programs and to assess forest owners' awareness of each one, its appeal among the owners aware of it, its effectiveness in encouraging sustainable forestry and enabling owners to meet their objectives, and the percentage of program practices that remain in place and enrolled acres that remain in forest over time. They also were asked to suggest ways to improve the programs. The Forest Stewardship, Forest Land Enhancement, and Forest Legacy Programs were among the top-rated federal programs, scoring well for all measures and attributes. Programs sponsored by states and private organizations tended to be more narrowly targeted than federal programs and scored well for specific attributes. The forestry officials' suggestions for program improvement centered largely on program visibility and availability, increasing and ensuring long-term consistency in program funding, and simplifying the application and approval processes.

State forestry officials responsible for forestry incentive programs in each of the 13 southern states were surveyed concerning their opinions on financial incentive programs available to nonindustrial private forest owners. The forestry officials were asked to name and describe the public and private programs available in their state, to assess forest owners' awareness of each program, its appeal among the owners aware of it, its effectiveness in encouraging sustainable forestry and enabling owners to meet their objectives, and the percent of program practices that remain in place and enrolled acres that remain in forest over time. They also were asked to suggest ways to improve the programs. The Forest Stewardship, Forest Land Enhancement, and Forest Legacy Programs were among the top rated federal programs. Programs sponsored by states and private organizations tended to be more narrowly targeted than federal programs and scored well for specific attributes. The forestry officials' suggestions for program improvement centered largely on improving program visibility and availability, increasing and ensuring long-term consistency in program funding, and simplifying the application and approval process.

Hunters and other recreators face challenges to gain access to private forestland in the United States because of an increasing number of landowners posting their land. A landowners' decision to post their land is influenced by a variety of factors, including landowner characteristics, hunter behavior, and parcel attributes. We used a logit model to help understand why family forest landowners in Minnesota post their land against public trespass. Factors that increased the likelihood of posting included younger owners, a perception that allowing access would interfere with one's own hunting, a perception that allowing access would result in damage to one's property, hunting as the primary reason for forestland ownership, larger parcel size, having a management plan, higher property values, and a high percentage of surrounding area open to public hunting. Implications of increased posting by family forest owners on hunting access and wildlife management are discussed.

ARTICLE I NFO We estimated the probability of enrollment and factors influencing participation in a forest stewardship-type program, Minnesota's Sustainable Forest Incentives Act, using data from a mail survey of over 1000 randomly-selected Minnesota family forest owners. Of the 15 variables tested, only five were significant predictors of a landowner's interest in enrolling in the program: compensation amount, intention to obtain a forest management plan, opposition to the program's land covenant, prior awareness of the program, and total acres of forest land owned. The estimated median minimum compensation required was approximately $24 per acre per year. One-fourth of the survey respondents were undecided about whether they would participate in the stewardship program, suggesting there may be potential to capture additional interest and participation. Marketing efforts to raise program awareness, increasing annual stewardship payments, and eliminating the land covenant are likely to be effective strategies for increasing program participation.

Focus groups were organized with individuals owning between 15 and 720 forested acres in northern Minnesota to better identify their understanding of, questions about, and interest in forest certification; factors that would encourage or discourage their participation in certificationprograms; and the types of certification program characteristics they preferred. Family forest landowner participants were generally unfamiliar with the concept of forest certification. They expressed concern about certification costs and benefits, its impact on land-use decisionmaking, eligibility requirements, and program administration. They also expressed clear preferences about how forest certification programs should be tailored to family forest landowners. The availability of financial assistance to help cover initial and ongoing certification costs, assurance that certification will not encumber property rights, and clear and tangible benefits were found to positively influence their interest in participation. The perspectives of other family forest landowners influenced individual attitudes toward certification. Moreover, initial attitudes toward forest certificationonly became more entrenched as landowners were provided additional information about certification—skeptics became more disinterested while those inclined to participate became even more so. Recommendations for foresters, forest policymakers, and forest certification program leaders are presented that would encourage more family forest landowner participation in certification.