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The information on selection of nesting habitat and nest directionality for arboreal species is crucial in developing conservation and management plan for the species. We studied the factors which affect the nesting habitat selection and the nest orientation by using the quadrat sampling method in Nelliyampathy Reserve Forest, Kerala. A total of 119 nest sites were observed on 26 different tree species in four different habitat types. Around 56.30% and 36.13% of the nests were sighted in contiguous forests and plantation with native tree shade, respectively. Of the 119 nests, 112 were in trees of height up to 30 m. Cullenia exarillata, Mesua ferrea, Actinodaphne malabarica, and Schleichera oleosa accounted for 45.4% of the nest with 15.9%, 11.8%, 9.2% and 8.4% nests, respectively. About 24.4% of the nests were directed towards the north-east direction (n = 29) whereas least preferred direction was the south (n = 05). This shows that the nests are oriented towards sun rise and to avoid wind and rainfall of monsoon which is foreseen from the south-west direction.

The Slender Loris in India includes two subspecies, the Mysore Slender Loris and the Malabar Slender Loris, with unidentified populations at overlapping ranges of the subspecies. Prior to 1996, the knowledge on Indian lorises was mostly limited to laboratory studies, or some anecdotes from the wild. Since late 1990, several intensive field studies have been carried out which informed about the status, ecology, behaviour, conservation issues, and management of the Slender Loris in India. Here, we review all these studies, discuss the major findings and identify directions for future research.

For conservation breeding, the endangered Lion-tailed Macaques have been maintained in North America under SSP since 1983 and in Europe under EEP since 1989. Based on a growing interest to support the species long-term survival, the SSP population increased considerably during the first few years of the programme but due to space problems and resulting birth control measures, it has drastically declined to small numbers and a non- breeding status at present. The EEP population continually increased till 2012, but due to the lack of spaces and birth control practises, it has gradually declined since then. It is emphasised that the knowledge gained from field studies on Lion-tailed Macaques in India and its incorporation for captive management under EEP has helped develop appropriate management strategies. Captive propagation of the Lion-tailed Macaque in India, the habitat country, can profit from the successes and drawbacks of the long-term management experiences of SSP and EEP.

India harbors a wide diversity of primates with 24 species that include lorises, macaques, langurs and gibbons. Systematic research on the primates in India started about 60 years ago. In order to develop a historical perspective, we recognize three broad phases of primate research: largely natural history and base line research, primarily behavioral ecology research, and increasingly question and hypothesis-driven research. We describe the old and the recent primate research in the country and suggest research areas for the future.

Adaptive pressures of human-induced rapid environmental changes and insular ecological conditions have led to behavioral innovations among behaviorally flexible nonhuman primates. Documenting long-term responses of threatened populations is vital for our understanding of species and location-specific adaptive capacities under fluctuating equilibrium. The Nicobar Long-tailed Macaque Macaca fascicularis umbrosus, an insular sub-species uses coconuts Cocos nucifera, an embedded cultivar as a food resource and is speculated to have enhanced its dependence as a result of anthropogenic and environmental alterations. We explored demographic patterns of use and abandonment of different phenophases of fresh coconuts. To study crop foraging strategies, we recorded daily entry and duration of forays into coconut plantations. We divided age-classes into early juvenile (13–36 months), late juvenile (37–72 months), and adults (>72 months) and classified phenophase of coconuts into six types. Consistent with the theory of life history strategies, late juveniles were found to use a greater number of coconuts, which was considerably higher in an urban troop but marginally higher in a forest-plantation dwelling group. Except in late juveniles, males consumed a higher number of coconuts than females in the remaining age-classes. Owing to developmental constraints, juveniles of both types used higher proportion of immature coconuts though adults showed equitable distribution across phenophases. Pattern of entries to plantations and duration of forays were uniform through the day in the urban troop but modulatory in the forest-plantation group, perhaps due to frequent and hostile human interferences. Observations corroborating adaptations to anthropogenic disturbances are described.

Precise knowledge of a species’ habitat requirements is essential for its conservation. Very little information exists on the habitat requirements of the Malabar slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus malabaricus), a nocturnal primate, making it difficult to formulate conservation action plans. The goal of this study was to evaluate the ecological determinants of t he Malabar slender loris at the Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India. We conducted surveys in a 1-km2 area in the southwest end of the sanctuary. We overlaid the study site with 1-ha grids and selected 83 grids for sampling. We surveyed each grid on five consecutive nights for the presence and abundance of lorises. We measured tree species richness, basal area, mean tree height, percentage shrub cover, percentage climber cover, climber species richness, percentage canopy cover, tree felling and branch lopping, paths, and the time taken to walk the trail. We built 19 models for occupancy and 17 models for abundance using PRESENCE 12.9. We detected 69 lorises in total in a 57.05-km walk with an encounter rate of 1.33 ± 0.21 SE individuals/km. The detection probability was 0.25 ± 0.04 SE for occupancy, and 0.13 ± 0.04 SE for abundance. The naive occupancy estimate for loris was 0.48, but the occupancy estimate of the top model with covariates was 0.67 ± 0.12 SE. The estimate of abundance (λ) was 2.40 ± 1.04 SE per grid cell. Basal area, species richness of the trees, and tree felling and branch lopping were the major positive determinants of loris occupancy and abundance. In contrast, the percentage climber cover negatively influenced occupancy and abundance. This suggests that climbers do not provide a complete platform for the lorises to move, while tree species richness and basal area reflect a greater number of trees that provide more connectivity than climbers. Detailed investigations using the methods we employed can be undertaken throughout the range of this species to determine occupancy and formulate conservation and management plans.

Extractive foraging is generally studied from the perspective of behavioral flexibility, cognitive ability, innovation and social learning. Despite its potential to elucidate synanthropic adaptation in species exploiting enclosed anthropogenic food, research on extractive foraging under urban conditions is limited. Since a large extent of anthropogenic food is packaged and contains highly processed food, processes of identification/extraction of food by nonhuman species become intriguing themes of research. We studied how processing status of embedded food determined extraction decisions across groups of a species differing in exposure and familiarity to the food. Further, we tested the generalizability of extraction methods. Experimenting with wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata), we found exposure- and form (native/shelled/peeled)-specific familiarity to peanuts, state (raw/boiled/roasted)-specific distinction in depeeling, and exposure- and state-specific differences in methods of depeeling. Group with the highest exposure to peanut differed in its propensity to use sophisticated extraction methods, e.g. depeeling by rubbing between palms (bimanual asymmetric action) and rubbing against horizontal substrata (unimanual action). The innovative methods were also extended to roasted peas and chickpeas by the urban group. Our study establishes a causal relationship between familiarity and processing status of food and shows the generalized extension of extraction methods based on food categorization.Summary StatementNonhuman species in cities face upheaval challenges of accessing enclosed and highly processed anthropogenic food. We studied the effects of minor processing of enclosed food on its extraction decisions.

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Species conservation depends on the needs of the species concerned. For example, obligatory forest-dwelling and typically urban primate species require different conservation approaches. Here, I compare the ecology, life history, and behavior of two species of macaques in southern India; review what we know about the conservation challenges for each; and propose conservation measures. Lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) are endemic to the rainforests of the Western Ghats and are endangered as a result of fragmentation of their habitats and low population growth. I recommend identification of contiguous forest habitats for viable lion-tailed macaque populations, improving the quality of their degraded habitats, and the linking of forest fragments with native vegetation as management measures for their conservation. In contrast, the bonnet macaque (M. radiata) is a habitat generalist endemic to southern India, but is losing its range to the relatively larger bodied and more aggressive rhesus macaque (M. mulatta). It is not a typically forest-dwelling species, and its populations are declining drastically in its traditional habitats that include Hindu temples, tourist spots, and roadsides with fruit-bearing trees and agricultural crops. The population has remained stable only where the habitat allows the macaques to forage in scrub jungle and includes a temple where the monkeys can obtain food from visitors. India is dotted with small hillocks with natural scrub or deciduous forest vegetation with one or two Hindu temples, and it appears that such habitats are the most suitable places for the long-term conservation of this species. These two case studies serve as examples of the different approaches needed to conserve forest-dwelling and urban primates, and with appropriate modifications, may inform the conservation of many other species.

Existing models of attachment do not explain how death of offspring affects maternal behavior. Previous descriptions of maternal responsiveness to dead offspring in nonhuman anthropoids have not expounded the wide variation of deceased-infant carrying (DIC) behavior. Through the current study, we attempt to (a) identify determinants of DIC through a systematic survey across anthropoids, (b) quantitatively assess behavioral changes of mother during DIC, and (c) infer death perception of conspecifics. Firstly, we performed phylogenetic regression using duration of DIC as the dependent variable. Secondly, we undertook case studies of DIC in the bonnet monkey and the lion-tailed monkey through behavioral sampling. Results of phylogenetic Generalized Linear Mixed Model (Nspecies = 18; Ncases = 48) revealed a strong homology (H2 = 0.86). We also obtained a high intraspecific variation in DIC and found DIC to be affected by mother's age, context of death, habitat condition, and degree of arboreality. We found bonnet mothers to carry their deceased offspring for 3.56 ± 4.03 SD days (N = 7) with diminished feeding, enhanced passivity, and social isolation during DIC and progressive decline in protection/attentiveness of corpse and attachment. Following Anderson (2016)'s framework of death perception, we interpreted repeated sensory investigation of corpses by mothers as comprehending causality of death, inanimate handling of corpse and its defense as comprehension of non-functionality, and a progressive disinterest of mothers in them as perceiving irreversibility of death. Lastly, we integrated DIC with mother-infant attachment theories and proposed a conceptual model characterizing DIC with causal determinants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Rapid urbanization exerts novel adaptive pressures on animals at the interface of natural and altered environments. Urban animals often rely on synthetic foods that require skilled extraction and flexible processing. We studied how synthetic treatment of an embedded food, peanut, determined its extraction and processing across groups of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) differing in encounter and familiarity with peanut. The possibility of the application of processing methods to similar foods was also tested. We found encounter- and form (native/shelled/skinned)-specific familiarity to peanuts, state (raw/boiled/roasted)-specific distinction in skinning, and encounter- and state-specific differences in methods of skinning. The group with the highest encounter with peanuts exhibited novel and manipulatively complex processing. Novel processing was also extended to peas and chickpeas. Our study establishes a strong relationship between familiarity with the condition of food and the processing methods used and further, demonstrates the probable role of categorization in extension of novel methods.

In primates, males compete for a mate, which is a non-sharable resource. This makes the conditions less conducive for males to have stable relationships. One such special kind of relationship is a bond where the interactions are reciprocated, equitable and differentiated. Bonds in macaque societies are based on the degree of within-group contest competition for mates which is dependent on the synchronization of female fertile phase and reliability of fertility signals. Species of the Fascicularis group, including Nicobar subspecies, show intermediate reliability in the signals with mild peaks, and studies have shown reciprocity but no differentiation. We conducted a study on a group of wild Nicobar long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis umbrosus to understand the existing patterns of male-male relationships. We examined whether there is reciprocity in affiliation among the individuals and whether the rate of affiliation is balanced. We also measured the dominance linearity and steepness in the group to understand the monopolizability of females. We used social network analysis to understand whether the relations are differentiated based on hierarchical position and whether the high-ranking individuals are the most central individuals in the distribution of grooming in the group. We found that there is reciprocity among the males although that is not equitable. There was no rankrelated differentiation of affiliation among the males of the group. Instead, the identities of individuals influenced affiliation patterns. Our results correspond to the existent strong relationships but lack of social bond otherwise found in the Fascicularis group of macaques.

Detailed mapping and regular monitoring of tropical rainforests is important for conservation and management of highly fragmented tropical rainforest habitats and biodiversity. Several studies have observed that it is highly challenging to map different vegetation types in tropical rainforests due to large environmental heterogeneity, high topographical variability and near constant cloud cover. In the present study, we assessed the capability of optical multispectral Sentinel-2 MSI bands, their derived NDVI and textures, and SAR Sentinel-1 bands and their textures to discriminate different vegetation types in the tropical rainforests of the Western Ghats using maximum likelihood and random forest classification. We also compared the results of our classification with previous such maps of the study area. Finally, we evaluated the magnitude of habitat fragmentation by using derived landscape metrics. Our classification had high accuracy (>75%), especially compared to previous classification efforts. Our results emphasise the significance of using vegetation indices and textures for vegetation type classification in the Western Ghats. Furthermore, the results suggest that rainforest habitats and other agro-ecosystems, suitable as habitats for numerous plant and animal species, are highly fragmented and require top conservation priority. High spectral and spatial resolution, continuity, affordability and access makes Sentinel-2 one of the best options for regular monitoring of tropical rainforests.

Group living primates often participate in between-group encounters to defend monopolizable resources. Participation in an encounter is influenced by the density and abundance of resources and the relative fighting ability of groups. We studied between- 15 group encounters in three groups of Nicobar long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis umbrosus) in the Great Nicobar Island, with one group, TR, being the focal study group to measure the influence of these factors on between-group encounters. Encounters varied rom mutual tolerance to aggressive fights, with females participating less aggressively than males. Sleeping site and vegetation cover were the primary influences on the nature of 20 interaction in the areas where home range overlapped. The initiation and intensity of an encounter were influenced by relative group size. The focal group (TR) was the smallest of the three groups in the area and it actively avoided confrontation with the other two groups (MG and PI), resulting in a lower observed encounter rate than expected. Both the frequency and aggressiveness of encounters was influenced by the number of females 25 cycling and the number of males present in the study group. Inasmuch as encounters were influenced by the number of females and the distribution of food, rather than geography, we conclude that encounters serve to defend food resources and mates rather than that they are examples of territoriality.

Studies that compare differences in the behavioural variability across species and genera are rare among south Asian primates. Such studies are important for understanding within-group feeding competition in primates as interindividual difference in frequency of behaviour is a good indicator of feeding competition. We compared the variability in individual activities of lion-tailed macaques, bonnet macaques, Nilgiri langurs, and black-footed grey langurs. Both macaque species showed variability in their activities, with bonnet macaques showing higher variability than lion-tailed macaques. This indicated higher within-group competition in bonnet macaques than in lion-tailed macaques. Folivorous Nilgiri langurs and black-footed grey langurs did not show variability in any behaviour, indicating weak or negligible within-group competition. Except in the bonnet macaque, the interindividual differences in activities in the other species were potentially due to the differences between lactating and non-lactating females. We observed that langurs were less variable than macaques, indicating higher within-group competition in macaques than in langurs. We also observed a higher frequency of aggressive interactions during feeding among macaques than langurs, substantiating higher within-group competition in macaques than in langurs. We further discuss the different possibilities of within-group contest and scramble competition in these species.

This chapter relates to the emerging field of evolutionary psychology. Building on past research understanding of the mechanisms underlying animal behavior is presented. Current researches in this field offer many insights into the development of social behaviours displayed among humans. The contribution of animal behaviour research to unravel the evolution of individual and social behaviours including foraging strategies, reproductive systems, social behaviour, dominance hierarchies, social communication, parental investment patterns, evolution of eusociality, among others, are highlighted. Finally, the applications of animal behaviour studies in the area of wildlife such as conservation, management of national parks, and zoo management are indicated. It may be noted that the developments in the area of animal behavior are impressive and are perhaps as good as noted in allied disciplines of anthropology and zoology. However, animal behaviour research is currently an underdeveloped field of psychology. India could perhaps rejuvenate its close association with animal world and nature, a main part of its mythology and real life, by developing this area.

Primates maintain social bonds with specific individuals in the group by directing grooming toward them. Social grooming is often targeted toward individuals with whom the most benefits can be exchanged, which are usually the high-ranking individuals. We used the Seyfarth model to investigate whether dominance rank alters the distribution of grooming in a group of Macaca fascicularis umbrosus at Great Nicobar Island. We investigated whether dominance rank predicted grooming rate in both males and females. We used social network analysis to examine whether high-ranking animals maintain a central position in the grooming network. We also investigated whether adult individuals exchange grooming for social tolerance, as indicated by physical proximity. We found that more social grooming was directed toward high-ranking females, but not high-ranking males. Social network analysis suggested that high-ranking animals are not central individuals in the distribution of grooming; rather, middle-ranking animals were major contributors to the distribution of grooming. There was no relation between the grooming rate and proximity in both males and females. Overall, our findings suggest that females prefer to direct grooming toward high-ranking partners, although the dominance hierarchy is less steep than expected for Macaca fascicularis. Thus rank-related grooming patterns may be a relatively conserved trait in this isolated island population.

Laterally asymmetrical movements are ubiquitous among organisms. A bilaterally symmetrical organism cannot maneuver through a two- or three-dimensional space unless and until one side of its body leads, because the forces that cause the movements of the body are generated within the body. One question follows: are there any costs or benefits of laterally asymmetrical movements? We test whether directionally consistent laterally asymmetrical movements at different levels of organization of movements (at the individual, and not the population level) can work synergistically. We show-by means of a hypothetical system resembling a humanoid robot-that a laterally asymmetrical movement at a lower level of organization of movements can stimulate laterally asymmetrical movements that are directionally consistent at consecutive higher levels. We show-by comparing two hypothetical systems, incorporating laterally symmetrical and asymmetrical movements, respectively-that the asymmetrical system outperforms the symmetrical system by optimizing space and time and that this space-time advantage increases with the increasing complexity of the task. Together, these results suggest that laterally asymmetrical movements can self-organize as a consequence of space-time optimization.

Introduction: A novel proprietary nano-combination therapy (Hybrid-Nanoengineering) combination of paclitaxel and bioavailable curcumin (nano-paclitaxel-curcumin or NPC) has been created and shown to be stable as a dry powder and was effective in treating pancreatic cancer in preclinical models. Experimental Methods: The highly aggressive L3.6PL model of orthotopic pancreatic cancer is typically lethal within 30 days. Three L3.6PL tumor spheroids were introduced into the pancreas of each of 40 nude mice with a vehicle control and treatment group. On 5 of the 20 mice in each treatment group 5x105 cells were implanted to act as sentinels for the orthotopic growth. After 5 days, treatment was initiated with 10 mg/kg (paclitaxel equivalent) every 4 days. The NPC was resuspended with saline to a 1 mg/ml final concentration and the vehicle group received saline (VC) in an equivalent volume. The NPC dose was adjusted on day 17 to 20 mg/kg, q4d as there was no observed flank tumor growth inhibition. Treatment was continued for 25 days before treatment was halted on day 42. Results 1: Tumor response was low at the initial 10 mg/kg dose and after 12 days when the flank tumors had reached ~600 mm3, the treatment was adjusted to 20 mg/kg, q4d. 17/20 of the VC control animals died or were euthanized by day 42, whereas in the NPC group 13/20 animals survived for an unexpected 65% survival rate with this aggressive tumor. The mean orthotopic tumor weight was 2.53 g and 0.81 g for the VC and NPC groups respectively, indicating a significant reduction in tumor volume with treatment in addition to the significant survival benefit with the NPC drug treatment. Results 2: At day 42 a decision to halt the combination therapy was made and two groups of 5 were randomized from the surviving NPC group animals. One group received a nano-curcumin (NC) at 40 mg/kg, q4d and one no treatment (C) for an additional 23 days. Tumors were excised and the average tumor volumes were 1.39 g for the "C" group and 0.54 g for the "NC" animals. Discussion: The NPC formulation provided dramatic and unexpected survival benefit at a relatively low dose of paclitaxel and was well tolerated by the mice already burdened with an aggressive pancreatic tumor. In fact, by allowing the tumors to escape initially at the 10 mg/kg, q4d dose, and reaching nearly 600 mm3 (flank sentinel tumors), this was an extreme challenge and the 20 mg/kg, q4d dose provided a significant benefit to overall survival, tumor burden and animal health. In a previous study with Panc-1 xenograft tumors, a clear benefit was shown with the nano-paclitaxel-curcumin over nab-paclitaxel with similar tumor volumes at half the dose (not shown). Citation Format: Mewa Singh, Michael R. Briggs. Hybrid-nanoengineering of an effective combination therapy for pancreatic cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research 2020; 2020 Apr 27-28 and Jun 22-24. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(16 Suppl):Abstract nr 1732.

When animals or groups of animals in their wild habitats come close to each other within a defined distance, it is termed as an association. Observing two groups of the lion-tailed macaque at Nelliyampathy and Andiparai forests of the Western Ghats of India, we asked whether the lion-tailed macaque associations with the sympatric Nilgiri langur and bonnet macaque were by chance or had any biological significance. Employing ‘all occurrences’ sampling, we recorded an association if a group of another primate species came within 30 m of the focal group of the lion-tailed macaque. Date, time, associating species, activity of the study species and of the associating species, type of interaction, aggressor and the recipient, species displaced and duration of the association were recorded. We used the Waser gas model to calculate the expected frequency and duration of associations and compared them with the observed associations. The lion-tailed macaque spent less time in associations than expected. The lion-tailed macaque and the Nilgiri langur initiated associations less often, and remained in association for less time, than expected by chance. Whereas the expected and observed initiation of associations between the lion-tailed macaque and the Nilgiri langur in Nelliyampathy was significantly different (expected rate = 153; observed rate = 64), in Andiparai, it was not (expected rate = 55.5; observed rate = 61). The expected and observed association duration was significantly different in Nelliyampathy (expected duration = 54 min; observed duration = 15 min) and Andiparai (expected duration = 48 min; observed duration = 19 min). In contrast, we detected few differences between observed and expected association frequency for the lion-tailed macaque and the bonnet macaque. Aggressive interactions were common in areas where density of the Nilgiri langur groups was high. This is the first study on Asian primates using the ideal gas approach to show that primates do not form active associations with each other.

Folivory, being a dietary constraint, can affect the social time of colobines. In the present study, we compared food items and activity budgets of two closely related species of colobines inhabiting South India, i.e. the Hanuman langur (Semnopithecus hypoleucos) and Nilgiri langur (Semnopithecus johnii), to determine whether folivory had an impact on social time in these species. Our study established that Nilgiri langurs were more folivorous than Hanuman langurs. Nilgiri langurs spent much less time on social activities, but more time on resting, although the social organization of S. hypoleucos was similar to that of the Nilgiri langur. The enforced resting time for fermentation of leafy food items may have reduced the time available for social interactions, which in turn affected the social time in Nilgiri langurs. By comparing the data from previous studies on other Hanuman langur species, we found that S. hypoleucos spent a similar amount of time on social activities as Semnopithecus entellus. Hence, the social behaviour of S. entellus and S. hypoleucos is phylogenetically highly conservative.

In the absence of information on species in decline with contracting ranges, management should emphasize remaining populations and protection of their habitats. Threatened by anthropogenic pressure including habitat degradation and loss, sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) in India have become limited in range, habitat, and population size. We identified ecological and anthropogenic determinants of occurrence within an occupancy framework to evaluate habitat suitability of non-protected regions (with sloth bears) in northeastern Karnataka, India. We employed a systematic sampling methodology to yield presence–absence data to examine a priori hypotheses of determinants that affected occupancy. These covariates were broadly classified as habitat or anthropogenic factors. Mean number of termite mounds and trees positively influenced sloth bear occupancy, and grazing pressure expounded by mean number of livestock dung affected it negatively. Also, mean percentage of shrub coverage had no impact on bear in...

The distribution and availability of food was examined to see how it influenced ranging patterns and sleeping site selection in a group of lion-tailed macaques. The home range and core area were 130.48 ha (95 % kernel) and 26.68 ha (50 % kernel) respectively. The lion-tailed macaques had a longer day range, had a greater number of sleeping sites and used more core areas in the summer as compared to the monsoon and the post-monsoon seasons. The ranging patterns and sleeping site use were influenced by the major food resources used in a particular season. The ranging was mainly influenced by Artocarpus heterophyllus in monsoon, Cullenia exarillata and Toona ciliata in post- monsoon, and Artocarpus heterophyllus and Ficus amplissima in summer. The distribution of these four plant species is, therefore, critical to ranging, and thus to conservation of the lion-tailed macaque.

The status of the endemic and endangered lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) has not been properly assessed in several regions of the Western Ghats of southern India. We conducted a study in Parambikulam Forest Reserve in the state of Kerala to determine the distribution, demography, and status of lion-tailed macaques. We laid 5km2 grid cells on the map of the study area (644km2) and made four replicated walks in each grid cell using GPS. We gathered data on lion-tailed macaque group locations, demography, and site covariates including trail length, duration of walk, proportion of evergreen forest, height of tallest trees, and human disturbance index. We also performed occupancy modeling using PRESENCE ver. 3.0. We estimated a minimum of 17 groups of macaques in these hills. Low detection and occupancy probabilities indicated a low density of lion-tailed macaques in the study area. Height of the tallest trees correlated positively whereas human disturbance and proportion of evergreen forest correlated negatively with occupancy in grid cells. We also used data from earlier studies carried out in the surrounding Anamalai Tiger Reserve and Nelliyampathy Hills to discuss the conservation status in the large Anamalai Hills Landscape. This landscape harbors an estimated population of 1108 individuals of lion-tailed macaques, which is about one third of the entire estimated wild population of this species. A conservation plan for this landscape could be used as a model for conservation in other regions of the Western Ghats.

Primates exhibit laterality in hand usage either in terms of (a) hand with which an individual solves a task or while solving a task that requires both hands, executes the most complex action, that is, hand preference, or (b) hand with which an individual executes actions most efficiently, that is, hand performance. Observations from previous studies indicate that laterality in hand usage might reflect specialization of the two hands for accomplishing tasks that require maneuvering dexterity or physical strength. However, no existing study has investigated handedness with regard to this possibility. In this study, we examined laterality in hand usage in urban free-ranging bonnet macaques, Macaca radiata with regard to the above possibility. While solving four distinct food extraction tasks which varied in the number of steps involved in the food extraction process and the dexterity required in executing the individual steps, the macaques consistently used one hand for extracting food (i.e., task requiring maneuvering dexterity)the maneuvering hand, and the other hand for supporting the body (i.e., task requiring physical strength)the supporting hand. Analogously, the macaques used the maneuvering hand for the spontaneous routine activities that involved maneuvering in three-dimensional space, such as grooming, and hitting an opponent during an agonistic interaction, and the supporting hand for those that required physical strength, such as pulling the body up while climbing. Moreover, while solving a task that ergonomically forced the usage of a particular hand, the macaques extracted food faster with the maneuvering hand as compared to the supporting hand, demonstrating the higher maneuvering dexterity of the maneuvering hand. As opposed to the conventional ideas of handedness in non-human primates, these observations demonstrate division of labor between the two hands marked by their consistent usage across spontaneous and experimental tasks requiring maneuvering in three-dimensional space or those requiring physical strength. Am. J. Primatol. 76:576-585, 2014. (c) 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Animals exhibit intraspecific variation in foraging behaviour when alternative strategies are likely to fetch greater returns for one individual over another. The mechanisms underlying such variation are often behavioural, physiological or ecological in nature. We studied intraspecific variation in foraging strategies and its possible causes in a population of urban free-ranging dogs by accounting for variables of performance in novel food extraction tasks and responses to perceived threats. When presented with specially made food packets, dogs extracted food using two distinct techniques: ‘gap widening’ and ‘rip opening’. The two techniques were distinguishable also in terms of their qualitative and quantitative attributes, that is, the sophistication of the process and latency in food extraction. Typically, males employed the sophisticated gap-widening technique, which was associated with faster food extraction and lower risk aversion; in contrast, females used the relatively underdeveloped rip-opening technique, which was relatively ineffective and mostly accompanied by active food guarding. Females during pregnancy/lactation behaved similarly to males. Upon exposure to an artificial threat, the performance of the dogs in foraging activities declined as a result of the more frequent usage of the less effective technique. Furthermore, foraging performance was positively related to both fearlessness and sensitivity to perceived threats. We explain these findings through both functional and mechanistic arguments.

Phenological studies help to analyze resource abundance and feeding ecology of some herbivorous primate species. The rainforest between the rivers Aghnashini and Sharavathy in Karnataka, India, is one of the richest primate habitats in the country. Plant resource availability was studied in this forest using belt transect and plot methods. More than 800 trees of 71 species were considered for phenology sampling, and the tree species used by primates for consumption of leaves, flowers and fruits were selected for availability monitoring. Flush leaves were available throughout the year. The availability of mature leaves and flowers was highest in pre-summer (December–February). Unripe and ripe fruits were mostly available in summer (March–May). The availability of these resources showed significant seasonal variation. The availability and abundance of plant food resources throughout the year, presence of keystone species and broad food niches probably account for the presence of a high density of primates including 32, 47 and 151 groups of lion-tailed macaques, bonnet macaques and Hanuman langurs respectively in about 200 km2 of this forest making this region a model for primate conservation.