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A novel genus within the Orthomyxoviridae family was identified in the USA and named Influenza D virus (IDV). Bovine have been proposed to be the primary host and three main viral lineages (D/OK-like, D/660-like and D/Japan-like) have been described. Experimental infections were so far performed in swine, ferret, calf and guinea pig, in order to study IDV pathogenesis. We developed a murine experimental model to ease the study of IDV pathogenesis and immune response. DBA/2 mice were inoculated with 105 TCID50 of D/bovine/France/5920/2014 (D/OK-like). No clinical signs and weight loss were observed. Viral replication was observed mainly in the upper respiratory tract (nasal turbinates) but also in lower respiratory tract of infected mice, with a peak at 4 days post-infection. Moreover, the virus was also detected in the intestines. All infected mice seroconverted by 14 days post infection. Transcriptomic analyses demonstrated that IDV induced an activation of pro inflammatory genes such as IFN-γ and CCL2. Inoculation of NFκB-luciferase and Ifnar1-/- mice demonstrated that IDV induced mild inflammation and that type I interferons response was not necessary in IDV clearance. Adaptation of IDV by serial passages in mice was not sufficient to induce disease or increased pathogenesis. Taken together, present data and comparisons with the calf model show that our mouse model allows for the study of IDV replication and fitness (before selected viruses may be inoculated on calves) and also of the immune response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most influenza viruses express the PB1-F2 protein which is regarded as a virulence factor. However, PB1-F2 behaves differently in avian and mammalian hosts, suggesting that this protein may be involved in the species barrier crossings regularly observed in influenza viruses. To better understand the functions associated with this viral protein, we decided to compare the BioID2-derived proximity interactome of a human PB1-F2 from an H3N2 virus with that of an avian PB1-F2 from an H7N1 strain. The results obtained reveal that the two proteins share only a few interactors and thus common functions. The human virus protein is mainly involved in signaling by Rho GTPases while the avian virus protein is mainly involved in ribonucleoprotein complex biogenesis. PB1-F2 H3N2 interactors include several members of the 14-3-3 protein family, a family of regulatory proteins involved in many signaling pathways. We then validated the interaction with 14-3-3 proteins and were able to show that the association of H3N2-PB1-F2 with YWHAH increased the activity of the antiviral sensor MDA5, while H7N1-PB1-F2 had no effect. Collectively, these results show that PB1-F2 can associate with a large range of protein complexes and exert a wide variety of functions. Furthermore, PB1-F2 interactome differs according to the avian or human origin of the protein.

Influenza A viruses cause important diseases in both human and animal. The PB1-F2 protein is a virulence factor expressed by some influenza viruses. Its deleterious action for the infected host is mostly described in mammals, while the available information is scarce in avian hosts. In this work, we compared the effects of PB1-F2 in avian and mammalian hosts by taking advantage of the zoonotic capabilities of an avian H7N1 virus. In vitro, the H7N1 virus did not behave differently when PB1-F2 was deficient while a H3N2 virus devoid of PB1-F2 was clearly less inflammatory. Likewise, when performing in vivo challenges of either chickens or embryonated eggs, with the wild-type or the PB1-F2 deficient virus, no difference could be observed in terms of mortality, host response or tropism. PB1-F2 therefore does not appear to play a major role as a virulence factor in the avian host. However, when infecting NF-κB-luciferase reporter mice with the H7N1 viruses, a massive PB1-F2-dependent inflammation was quantified, highlighting the host specificity of PB1-F2 virulence. Surprisingly, a chimeric 7:1 H3N2 virus harboring an H7N1-origin segment 2 (i.e. expressing the avian PB1-F2) induced a milder inflammatory response than its PB1-F2-deficient counterpart. This result shows that the pro-inflammatory activity of PB1-F2 is governed by complex mechanisms involving components from both the virus and its infected host. Thus, a mere exchange of segment 2 between strains is not sufficient to transmit the deleterious character of PB1-F2.

Current inactivated vaccines against influenza A viruses (IAV) mainly induce immune responses against highly variable epitopes across strains and are mostly delivered parenterally, limiting the development of an effective mucosal immunity. In this study, we evaluated the potential of intranasal formulations incorporating conserved IAV epitopes, namely the long alpha helix (LAH) of the stalk domain of hemagglutinin and three tandem repeats of the ectodomain of the matrix protein 2 (3M2e), as universal mucosal anti-IAV vaccines in mice and chickens. The IAV epitopes were grafted to nanorings, a novel platform technology for mucosal vaccination formed by the nucleoprotein (N) of the respiratory syncytial virus, in fusion or not with the C-terminal end of the P97 protein (P97c), a recently identified Toll-like receptor 5 agonist. Fusion of LAH to nanorings boosted the generation of LAH-specific systemic and local antibody responses as well as cellular immunity in mice, whereas the carrier effect of nanorings was less pronounced towards 3M2e. Mice vaccinated with chimeric nanorings bearing IAV epitopes in fusion with P97c presented modest LAH- or M2e-specific IgG titers in serum and were unable to generate a mucosal humoral response. In contrast, N-3M2e or N-LAH nanorings admixed with Montanide™ gel (MG) triggered strong specific humoral responses, composed of serum type 1/type 2 IgG and mucosal IgG and IgA, as well as cellular responses dominated by type 1/type 17 cytokine profiles. All mice vaccinated with the [N-3M2e + N-LAH + MG] formulation survived an H1N1 challenge and the combination of both N-3M2e and N-LAH nanorings with MG enhanced the clinical and/or virological protective potential of the preparation in comparison to individual nanorings. Chickens vaccinated parenterally or mucosally with N-LAH and N-3M2e nanorings admixed with Montanide™ adjuvants developed a specific systemic humoral response, which nonetheless failed to confer protection against heterosubtypic challenge with a highly pathogenic H5N8 strain. Thus, while the combination of N-LAH and N-3M2e nanorings with Montanide™ adjuvants shows promise as a universal mucosal anti-IAV vaccine in the mouse model, further experiments have to be conducted to extend its efficacy to poultry., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Calzas, Mao, Turpaud, Viboud, Mettier, Figueroa, Bessière, Mangin, Sedano, Hervé, Volmer, Ducatez, Bourgault, Archambault, Le Goffic and Chevalier.)

Influenza is one of the most widespread viral infections worldwide and represents a major public health problem. The risk that one of the next pandemics is caused by an influenza strain is high. It is important to develop broad-spectrum influenza antivirals to be ready for any possible vaccine shortcomings. Anti-influenza drugs are available but they are far from ideal. Arguably, an ideal antiviral should target conserved viral domains and be virucidal, that is, irreversibly inhibit viral infectivity. Here, a new class of broad-spectrum anti-influenza macromolecules is described that meets these criteria and display exceedingly low toxicity. These compounds are based on a cyclodextrin core modified on its primary face with long hydrophobic linkers terminated either in 6'sialyl- N -acetyllactosamine (6'SLN) or in 3'SLN. SLN enables nanomolar inhibition of the viruses while the hydrophobic linkers confer irreversibility to the inhibition. The combination of these two properties allows for efficacy in vitro against several human or avian influenza strains, as well as against a 2009 pandemic influenza strain ex vivo. Importantly, it is shown that, in mice, one of the compounds provides therapeutic efficacy when administered 24 h post-infection allowing 90% survival as opposed to no survival for the placebo and oseltamivir., Competing Interests: O.K., V.C., C.T., and F.S. are inventors on patent number EP18192559.5. All the other authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2020 The Authors. Advanced Science published by Wiley‐VCH GmbH.)

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the main cause of severe respiratory infection in young children worldwide, and no therapies have been approved for the treatment of RSV infection. Data from recent clinical trials of fusion or L polymerase inhibitors for the treatment of RSV-infected patients revealed the emergence of escape mutants, highlighting the need for the discovery of inhibitors with novel mechanisms of action. Here we describe stapled peptides derived from the N terminus of the phosphoprotein (P) that act as replication inhibitors. We demonstrate that these peptides inhibit RSV replication in vitro and in vivo by preventing the formation of the N 0 -P complex. The present strategy provides a novel means of targeting RSV replication with constrained macrocyclic peptides or small molecules and is broadly applicable to other viruses of the Mononegavirales order., (Copyright © 2020 Galloux et al.)