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Enquanto as dinâmicas organizacionais dos sistemas de manejo coletivo têm recebido bastante atenção, relativamente pouco esforço tem sido focado em saber como as famílias adaptam suas estratégias econômicas em resposta a regulamentações de manejo coletivo que impõem restrições às opções disponíveis a elas. Neste artigo investigamos a interação entre estratégias de manejo e regulamentações de manejo coletivo para um ou ambos os recursos ecologicamente interdependentes, lagos de pesca e campos de várzea sazonalmente inundados do Baixo Amazonas no Brasil. As estratégias de manejo dos pequenos proprietários envolvem combinações variadas de três atividades principais, cada uma associada com um dos três principais hábitos de várzea: culturas anuais em restingas fluviais, criação de gado nos campos naturais e pesca em lagos. Estas três atividades têm papéis complementares na economia doméstica. As culturas anuais são tanto de subsistência quanto voltadas ao mercado, com a receita da venda geralmente utilizada para investimento na compra de gado. A pesca, além de prover proteína animal, gera renda para os gastos domésticos enquanto o cultivo se desenvolve. A criação de gado é a principal estratégia de poupança para os pequenos proprietários, provendo recursos para emergências familiares e investimentos de capital. Durante as duas últimas décadas as comunidades da várzea amazônica desenvolveram e implementaram acordos coletivos para regulamentar o acesso e o uso de lagos pesqueiros e campos de várzea locais. Dependendo das medidas incluídas, o impacto destes acordos sobre as estratégias de manejo domésticas podem variar de nulos a altamente significativos, requerendo maiores ajustes para compensar a redução da renda e/ou de economias em potencial. Identificamos conflitos entre estratégias coletivas e individuais para segurança de longo prazo como a questão crítica para os recursos de várzea e concluímos propondo uma abordagem mais baseada no pequeno proprietário para o estudo de sistemas de manejo coletivo.Palavras-Chave: Recursos comuns. Várzea Amazônica. Pesca artesanal. Pequenos produtores rurais. Manejo comunitário.

There is a drastic need for reforestation in the Sahel region of Africa. International donors and local governments invest large sums of money for the purpose of planting trees. Unfortunately, the majority of reforestation efforts last only as long as the projects. Presently there is a push in the donor community to have more sustainable projects, increasing local participation and creating a situation in which reforestation efforts will continue beyond the scope of any one project. This thesis examines the potential opportunity for the use of eucalyptus in the domestic sawn wood markets of Senegal. It is hoped that with increased economic incentives the local population will become more inclined to plant trees. It is therefore important to identify the market opportunities for the products of reforestation. In this research it has been noted that more emphasis should be placed on determining the barriers to market entry for the goods to be produced from the reforestation and providing assistance to lower those barriers. In Senegal it is generally accepted that planting for fuel wood and housepoles does not provide enough of an economic incentive for increased local involvement in reforestation. This thesis finds that the domestic sawn wood market for eucalyptus in Senegal holds potential but will not provide tangible benefits until there are further improvements in the market infrastructure and communication to the farmer. To increase the participation in this market the people of Senegal need to see for themselves that reforestation can be financially beneficial. Reforestation projects rust have a longer-term vision and provide assistance throughout the productive cycle of the tree. Master of Science

Human health is frequently omitted from household-level studies on agricultural productivity, land-use choices, and forest degradation and deforestation. Intuition, however, suggests that it could be an extremely important factor. This dissertation is built on three essays that use household survey data from the Brazilian Amazon to examine the conditions under which human health and other critical market conditions are important factors in determining household agriculture production choices and efficiency. Essay I (Chapter 2) examines how health affects the labor allocation and production choices of migrant smallholders in the Brazilian Amazon. We show that the impacts of illness on household decisions depend critically on labor market function in the rural areas of the tropics. Furthermore, results from a formal statistical test of the labor markets shows that they do not work well, in other words are incomplete or thin, in the study area. These results are important both in specification of future smallholder household economic models and in targeting policies to better alleviate poverty and encourage more sustainable use of forest and land resources in similar tropical regions. Essay II (Chapter 3) investigates the role of health as a productive input and non-input factor of production. By using a non-neutral stochastic production approach, the impact of health is decomposed into direct effect on the production function and indirect effects on technical efficiency. The finding of the essay suggests that poor health has significant negative impacts on rural household production. The most important policy implication is that careful designing of agriculture development and rural settlements programs is important, and the provision of health care should be tied to these development projects. Essay III (Chapter 4) examines the demand for labor applied to land clearing, staple food production, livestock, working off-farm, and time taking care of sick people in the household. Specifically the empirical application examines the impact of disease on labor allocation, accounting for time lost by households taking care of sick members as a non-productive activity. Disease plays an important role in household decisions because farm activities are performed inefficiently by sick households and changes in household labor efficiency brings about a change in the relative price of competing uses for a household's time. Chapter 5 provides a summary and general conclusion of the work, and then provides comments on policy design and recommendations for further studies. In summary, the combined results of these studies show that both health condition and the quality of labor markets have significant interacting impacts on the labor allocation decisions by smallholders with accompanying welfare and deforestation implications. Doctor of Philosophy Most of the rural population of the Brazilian Amazon is made up of small-scale farmers – the so-called 'smallholders' – who are characterized by a lack of access to formal credit, a disconnection from social services, poor access to markets, and a dependency on their own labor as the main input in agricultural production, and thus survival. Since labor is the main input used in smallholder activities, albeit to different extents, anything that changes total household labor or labor efficiency adjusts the relative returns of competing uses, and thus labor allocation decisions. This PhD dissertation is an effort to understand whether markets, family health, and seasonality affect labor allocation decisions, and furthermore, whether those allocation decisions vary depending on productive activity. Based on cross-sectional farm data from the Brazilian Amazon, I find that the impacts of illness on household decisions depend critically on how well labor market function in rural areas. The results from a statistical test of the labor markets shows that they do not work well in the study area. These results are important both in specification of future smallholder household economic models and in targeting policies to better alleviate poverty and encourage more sustainable use of forests and land resources in similar settings. Also, I find that poor health has a significant negative impact on technical efficiency of rural household farm production. The most important policy implication is that careful designing of agriculture development and rural settlements programs is important, and the provision of health care care should be tied to these development projects. Finally, in the context of the region of study, where labor markets are thin, disease plays an important role on in household decisions because farm activities are performed inefficiently by sick households and change in labor efficiency brings about a change in relative prices of competing uses of household's time. My empirical work supports the hypothesis that health influence labor allocation decisions. In conclusion, the combined results of these studies show that both health conditions and the quality of labor markets have significant interacting impacts on the labor allocation decisions by smallholders with accompanying welfare and deforestation implications.

This PhD dissertation represents an effort to understand individual behavior leading to decisions regarding natural resource use and compliance with conservation policy at the government and at the community levels through the analysis of specific cases in the Brazilian Amazon. I first analyze the case of smallholder land clearing along the Transamazon and BR-163 highways in the face of Brazilian Forest Code enforcement by the federal government. My hypothesis is that smallholder land clearing paths over time are affected by assessments of the probability of being caught violating the Forest Code. I develop a dynamic decision model that considers the potential benefits and costs accrued from land clearing through time by a representative smallholder and include her perception of the probability of Forest Code enforcement, unobserved to the researcher. I apply an endogenous switching regressions econometric model to data collected with a sample of 542 households in 2003 and 2013/14. I find that longer land tenure frontiers where there are opportunities for smallholders to transition to cattle grazing from agriculture deserve the attention of enforcement of land clearing laws and restrictions and that the use of the forest by a smallholder is a protective signal that must be considered and encouraged. My results suggest that alleged government efforts to enforce the Forest Code among smallholders in the sample region have been ineffective. The second case I analyze is that of fisher households that enforce community fishing agreements, known as accords, in the floodplains of the Amazon River surrounding the city of Santarém. My hypothesis is that individual households benefit from their own fishing accords enforcement effort through fishing time savings. A factor demand analysis applied to data collected with over 600 households reveals that statistically important drivers of labor demand and fuel include the level of dedication of a household and its history in implementing fishing accords, the landscape, the flood cycle, the distance to the main regional market and biomass. The average household fishing time savings from enforcing accords range between 59 and 36 eight-hour days for a six-month-period, an important argument for continuing the enterprise. PHD