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Microbial infections remain a public health problem due to the upsurge of bacterial resistance. In this study, the antibacterial, antibiofilm, and efflux pump inhibitory activities of the stem bark of Acacia macrostachya, an indigenous African medicinal plant, were investigated. In traditional medicine, the plant is used in the treatment of microbial infections and inflammatory conditions. A crude methanol extract obtained by Soxhlet extraction was partitioned by column chromatography to obtain the petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and methanol fractions. Antibacterial, efflux pump inhibition and antibiofilm formation activities were assessed by the high-throughput spot culture growth inhibition (HT-SPOTi), ethidium bromide accumulation, and the crystal violet retention assay, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of the crude extract and major fractions ranged from 250 to ≥500 μg/mL. At a concentration of 3.9–250 μg/mL, all extracts demonstrated >80% inhibition of biofilm formation in S. aureus. In P. aeruginosa, the EtOAc fraction showed the highest antibiofilm activity (59–69%) while the pet-ether fraction was most active against E. coli biofilms (45–67%). Among the test samples, the crude extract, methanol, and ethyl acetate fractions showed remarkable efflux pump inhibition in S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa. At ½ MIC, the methanol fraction demonstrated significant accumulation of EtBr in E. coli having superior efflux inhibition over the standard EPIs: chlorpromazine and verapamil. Tannins, flavonoids, triterpenoids, phytosterols, coumarins, and saponins were identified in preliminary phytochemical studies. Stigmasterol was identified in the EtOAc fraction. This study justifies the use of A. macrostachya in the treatment of infections in traditional medicine and highlights its potential as a source of bioactive compounds that could possibly interact with some resistance mechanisms in bacteria to combat antimicrobial resistance.

Introduction. In the management of hypertension (a cardiovascular disease and the leading metabolic risk factor in noncommunicable diseases) with herbal medicines, efficacy and safety are of uttermost concern. This study sought to establish hypotensive, antihypertensive, drug interaction, and safety for use of the aqueous leaf extracts of Annona muricata (AME), Persea americana (PAE), or their combination products (CAPE). Methodology. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), and heart rate (HR) were measured in normotensive Sprague-Dawley rats treated with 50–150 mg/kg of AME, PAE, or CAPE to establish a hypotensive effect. “Combination index” was calculated to establish interaction between AME and PAE. The antihypertensive effect of CAPE was established by measuring SBP, DBP, MAP, and HR in ethanol-sucrose- and epinephrine-induced hypertension. Full blood count, liver and kidney function tests, and urinalysis were determined in ethanol/sucrose-induced hypertension to establish safety for use. Results. AME, PAE, and CAPE significantly ( p ≤ 0.001 ) decreased BP in both normotensive and hypertensive animals. Effects of CAPE 1, CAPE 2, and CAPE 3 were synergistic (combination indices of 0.65 ± 0.07, 0.76 ± 0.09, and 0.87 ± 0.07, respectively). There was a significant decrease ( p ≤ 0.01 − 0.001 ) in SBP and MAP with 100 mg/kg CAPE 1 and 75 mg/kg CAPE 2 treatment in hypertension as well as with nifedipine ( p ≤ 0.001 ) treatment. Epinephrine-induced hypertension in anesthetized cats was significantly and dose-dependently inhibited ( p < 0.05 − 0.001 ) by 25–100 mg/ml CAPE 1 and 37.5–75 mg/ml CAPE 2. CAPE administration had no deleterious effect ( p > 0.05 ) on full blood count, liver and kidney function, and urine composition in hypertensive rats. Conclusion. The aqueous leaf extracts of Annona muricata, Persea americana, and their combination products possess antihypertensive properties, with combination products showing synergism and safety with use.

The incidence of liver diseases is increasing globally, and many patients in developing countries are resorting to the use of herbal products as treatment. This study was aimed at establishing the safety and effectiveness outcomes for patients with deranged liver panel treated with a Ghanaian finished polyherbal product. The product Heptonica is prepared by CPMR from three medicinal plants: Bidens pilosa, Citrus aurantifolia, and Trema orientalis. Fifty (50) participants with clinical and biochemical signs of liver impairment were purposively recruited and treated for a period of 28 days. Participants received Heptonica at a dose of 30 mL 8 hourly after meals for the treatment period. Clinical and biochemical evaluation (liver panel test, renal function test, haematology, and urinalysis) of subjects for the safety and effectiveness of the product was undertaken at days 0 (baseline), 14, and 28. Compared to the baseline values, Heptonica did not have any untoward effect on renal function, haematological parameters, and urine parameters of subjects. Clinical and liver panel results of the participants also improved compared to the baseline: serum aspartate transaminase (AST) (p p p- 0.0013), total bilirubin (p-0.0136), direct bilirubin (p p-0.0409), and alkaline phosphates (p- 0.0284). Level of albumin showed no significant difference within the study period. The outcome of this study indicates Heptonica has hepatorestorative action with no observable toxicity and can be used with confidence as indicated as a liver tonic.

The use of herbal products has increased and become more popularized globally; however, limited studies coupled with questions related to the quality and safety of these herbal products have been raised. Herbal products with hope of their nontoxicity may play a role of alternative to overcome the problems of multi-drug resistant pathogens. Medicinal plants used as raw materials for production may have quality and safety issues due to proximity to wastewater application of fungicides and pesticides, which may be directly deposited superficially or absorbed by the plant system. Therefore, possible contamination of some Ghanaian herbal products cannot be ignored, as it may severely affect human life in the process of treatment.Aim. To evaluate the microbial load and the presence of toxic heavy metals inMist Amen FevermixandEdhec Malacure, two polyherbal products used in the treatment of uncomplicated malaria in Ghana.Methods. Thermo Elemental M5 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) fitted with graphite furnace and an auto sampler was used to determine the heavy metal contents of the herbal products. The herbal samples were evaluated for the microbial load by using the appropriate culture media.Results and Analysis.Mist Amen Fevermix and Edhec Malacurecomplied with the safety limits evaluated for all different microbial counts and contamination. The following heavy metals were present inMist Amen Fevermix and Edhec Malacure Mixture: Fe, Ni, K, Zn, Hg, Cu, Mn, Cr, Cd, Pb, Fe, Cu, K, and Na. Ni was below detectable limit inEdhec Malacure.Conclusion.Mist Amen Fevermix and Edhec Malacuremay be assured of safety. The products contained heavy metals, but all were within acceptable limit established by the FAO/WHO. The levels of microbial contamination were below the maximum acceptable limit.

Malaria is a public health challenge that requires prompt treatment for those infected to make a full recovery. Treatment of malaria infection is to be started as soon as a diagnosis is confirmed. Antimalarial medications are administered to prevent and also to treat malaria. The type of medication used and the duration of therapy is dependent on the type of malaria-causing plasmodium species, the severity of the symptoms, geographical area where malaria infection occurred and the medication used to prevent malaria and whether there is pregnancy. Treatment of malaria from public health perspective is to reduce transmission of the infection to others, by reducing the infectious reservoir and to prevent the emergence and spread of resistance to antimalarial medicines. Medications used in the treatment of malaria infection come from the following five groups of chemical compounds: quinolines and aryl amino alcohols, antifolate, artemisinin derivatives, hydroxynaphthoquinones and antibacterial agents. The treatment of malaria is not initiated until the diagnosis has been established through laboratory testing. Artemisinin-based Combination Therapy (ACTs) has been used for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria. ACTs are also to enhance treatment and protect against the development of drug resistance. IV artesunate is used in the treatment of severe malaria, regardless of infecting species.

Malaria is a public health problem and continues to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality in most tropical and subtropical countries. A rapid spread of malarial disease globally due to treatment failure has led to an urgent need for new effective antimalarials which medicinal plants have contributed to in medicine. The objective of this research is to determine the effectiveness of Mist Amen Fevermix which is a decoction of the stem bark of Morinda lucida and Parinari robusta in the treatment of uncomplicated malaria in humans, at the Tafo Government Hospital, Kumasi. Clinically established malaria in male and female patients aged, 15-60 years were treated with Mist Amen Fevermix, at the specified dose of 45 mls (0.45 g) three times daily for six days. A total of 50 patients were diagnosed with malaria disease. At the randomization visit, a detailed medical history was obtained and the patients underwent laboratory investigation was done at entry and after completing the study. All the 50 patients completed the study and there was a statistically significant difference between the mean levels of malaria parasite load recorded 28 indicating a significant effectiveness of Mist Amen Fevermix used by the patients. Parasitaemia clearance was 82.35% within the first three days in clients who responded positively to treatment. Results of the study suggest that Mist Amen Fevermix is an effective herbal antimalarial agent when used as specified by the manufacturer.

There has always been a strong human dependency on plants for health purposes and such an important relationship should be sustained. Plants remain a repository of drug leads for discovering new pharmaceutical agents for prevention, treatment and improving the quality of health for many people globally. In the effort to improve healthcare services, Ghana put up the Recommended Essential Herbal Medicine List (REHML) consisting of products that are used in the treatment of both Communicable and non-Communicable diseases. To inspire confidence among prescribers and clients of the products it has become necessary to validate the plants and their products. The aim of the study was to identify the medicinal plants' species in the herbal products in Ghana’s REHML commonly used for treatment, the conditions being treated with them and finding published research for the plants therapeutic use. Medicinal plants on the REHML with chances of getting extinct were also assessed. The REHML of Ghana and the Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia were reviewed for the required information. Electronic databases; PubMed and Scopus, as well as online search engines, Google Scholar and Google were used to obtain information on the identified medicinal plants and their families. A total of 167 medicinal plant species were found to be used in 180 products as compiled in the Ghana REHML and these belonged to 63 botanical families. Most of the medicinal plants are collected from the wild making sustainability and bio-conservation a challenge. Decoctions, creams and ointments are the commonest dosage forms. The REHML of Ghana caters for 13 disease areas using 180 finished herbal products. These products are made from 167 medicinal plants, 16 of which are in the group of medicinal plants classified as endangered species. There should be a conscious effort to bio-conserve these endangered medicinal plant species so that there can be continuous supply for use in the preparation of herbal products for healthcare purposes.

Introduction In the management of hypertension (a cardiovascular disease and the leading metabolic risk factor in noncommunicable diseases) with herbal medicines, efficacy and safety are of uttermost concern. This study sought to establish hypotensive, antihypertensive, drug interaction, and safety for use of the aqueous leaf extracts of Annona muricata (AME), Persea americana (PAE), or their combination products (CAPE). Methodology. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), and heart rate (HR) were measured in normotensive Sprague-Dawley rats treated with 50–150 mg/kg of AME, PAE, or CAPE to establish a hypotensive effect. “Combination index” was calculated to establish interaction between AME and PAE. The antihypertensive effect of CAPE was established by measuring SBP, DBP, MAP, and HR in ethanol-sucrose- and epinephrine-induced hypertension. Full blood count, liver and kidney function tests, and urinalysis were determined in ethanol/sucrose-induced hypertension to establish safety for use. Results AME, PAE, and CAPE significantly (p ≤ 0.001) decreased BP in both normotensive and hypertensive animals. Effects of CAPE 1, CAPE 2, and CAPE 3 were synergistic (combination indices of 0.65 ± 0.07, 0.76 ± 0.09, and 0.87 ± 0.07, respectively). There was a significant decrease (p ≤ 0.01 − 0.001) in SBP and MAP with 100 mg/kg CAPE 1 and 75 mg/kg CAPE 2 treatment in hypertension as well as with nifedipine (p ≤ 0.001) treatment. Epinephrine-induced hypertension in anesthetized cats was significantly and dose-dependently inhibited (p < 0.05 − 0.001) by 25–100 mg/ml CAPE 1 and 37.5–75 mg/ml CAPE 2. CAPE administration had no deleterious effect (p > 0.05) on full blood count, liver and kidney function, and urine composition in hypertensive rats. Conclusion The aqueous leaf extracts of Annona muricata, Persea americana, and their combination products possess antihypertensive properties, with combination products showing synergism and safety with use.

Background The use of herbal medicines in developing countries has been increasing over the years. In Ghana, since 2011, the government has been piloting the integration of herbal medicine in 17 public hospitals. However, the strengths and the weaknesses of the integration have not been fully explored. The current study sought to examine the strengths and weaknesses of the integration using the WHO health systems framework. Methods This study used qualitative, exploratory study design involving interviews of 25 key informants. The respondents had experience in conducting herbal medicine research. Two key informants were medical herbalists practising in hospitals piloting the integration in Ghana. We used Framework analysis to identify the perspectives of key informants in regards to the integration. Results Key informants mostly support the integration although some noted that the government needs to support scale-up in other public hospitals. Among the strengths cited were the employment of medical herbalists, utilization of traditional knowledge, research opportunities, and efficient service delivery by restricting the prescription and use of fake herbal medicine. The weaknesses were the lack of government policies on implementing the integration, financial challenges because the National Health Insurance Scheme does not cover herbal medicine, poor advocacy and research opportunities, and lack of training of conventional health practitioners in herbal medicine. Conclusions Researchers view the integration of the two healthcare systems–biomedicine, and herbal medicine– positively but it has challenges that need to be addressed. The integration could offer more opportunities for researching into herbal medicine. More training for conventional health professionals in herbal medicine could increase the chances of better coordination between the two units. Additionally, strong advocacy and publicity is needed to educate more people on the integration and the utilization of the services. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12906-018-2334-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Seven new prenylated indole alkaloids ( 1 – 7 ) together with two known compounds ( 8 – 9 ) were isolated from the stem bark of Hexalobus monopetalus . Their structures were established on the basis of comprehensive spectroscopic analysis, including HR-MS, 1D and 2D NMR and by comparison of their spectral data with those reported in literature. The new compounds were tested for antimicrobial activity against selected pathogenic bacteria and fungi but showed no activity. The marked presence of prenylated indole alkaloids in Hexalobus and closely related genera makes them useful chemotaxonomic markers.

The use of medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases including malaria is commonplace in Ghanaian traditional medicine, though the therapeutic claims for most plants remain unvalidated. Antiplasmodial activity of the aqueous extracts and successively obtained petroleum ether, ethyl acetate and methanol fractions of the whole Phyllanthus fraternus plant, the leaves of Tectona grandis, Terminalia ivorensis and Bambusa vulgaris, and roots of Senna siamea were studied against Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine-sensitive 3D7 and chloroquine-resistant W2 strains. The aqueous extracts were assessed against human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) for cytotoxicity, and the organic solvent fractions against human O(+) erythrocytes for haemolytic effect. Both extracts and fractions demonstrated antiplasmodial activity to varied extents. The aqueous extract of T. ivorensis was the most active (3D7, IC50 0.64 ± 0.14; and W2, IC50 10.52 ± 3.55 μg/mL), and together with P. fraternus displayed cytotoxicity (CC50 6.25 ± 0.40 and 31.11 ± 3.31 μg/mL, respectively). The aqueous extracts were generally selective for 3D7 strain of P. falciparum (selectivity indexes (SIs) ≥3.48) but only that of S. siamea was selective for the W2 strain (SI > 2.1). The organic solvent fractions also displayed antiplasmodial activity with the methanol fractions of P. fraternus and T. grandis, and the fractions of B. vulgaris showing activity with IC50 below 1 μg/mL against P. falciparum 3D7 strain; some fractions showed haemolytic effect but with low to high selectivity indexes (SI ≥ 4). The results while justifying the traditional use of the plant materials in the treatment of malaria, however, suggest their cautious use.

The chemical investigation of the antimalarial plant Phyllanthus fraternus G. L. Webster (Phyllanthaceae) resulted in the discovery of the Securinega alkaloid (+)-allonorsecurinine ( 1 ), previously reported as a synthetic compound, together with the known ent -norsecurinine ( 2 ), nirurine ( 3 ), bubbialine ( 4 ), epibubbialine ( 5 ) and the lignan phyllanthin ( 6 ). The structure and absolute configuration of the new compound were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis, optical rotation, and GIAO NMR shift calculation followed by CP3 analysis. The antiplasmodial activity of these compounds was evaluated against chloroquine-resistant (W2) and -sensitive (3D7) strains of Plasmodium falciparum . Among them, ent -norsecurinine ( 2 ) and (+)-allonorsecurinine ( 1 ) showed the strongest activity (IC 50 : 1.14 ± 0.32 and 2.57 ± 0.53 µM) respectively, against W2 but one of the weakest against 3D7.

Background: Herbal antimalarials have become a popular source of treatment for most Ghanaians. The significant increase in patronage is of public health concern due to the lack of quality, safety, and efficacy data. Aim: In this report, we evaluated the clinical safety and effectiveness of a Ghanaian commercial product named “Time Herbal Mixture” (THM). The product is formulated from the leaves of Solanum torvum and Vernonia amygdalina and the stem bark of Spathodea campanulata and Bombax buonopozense. Methods: Participants of 40 patients diagnosed with uncomplicated malaria were recruited, treated, and followed up for a period of 28 days. This population comprised 25 (62.50%) females and 15 (37.50%) males, with a mean age of 42.29 (12.35) years. Outcome of primary interest was the ability of the product to clear blood parasites by day 7 of the study, resolution of cardinal symptoms of malaria, and an absence of adverse effects from the use of the product. Results and Discussion: A total of 33 (82.50%) participants achieved clearance of all parasites by day 7 (complete cure). Partial clearance was attained by 6 (15.0%) and treatment failure in 1 (2.50%). Resolution of the cardinal symptoms was also observed in most participants by day 7. The product also had a good safety profile as none of the participants reported any adverse effects. Liver, kidney, and hematological profiles were also normal after the study. Conclusion: “THM,” therefore, has the potential to be used in cases of uncomplicated malaria.

A prospective randomised double blind parallel controlled trial was conducted to evaluate the safety and clinical effectiveness of a standardised Ghanaian polyherbal product EAF-2011 comprising: Alchornea cordifolia, Eugenia caryophyllata, Psidium guajava, Tridax procumbens and Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, used in the management of skin diseases. A total number of 84 participants aged between 8 and 45 years who were clinically diagnosed with superficial mycoses were recruited into the study and followed up for 4 months. Participants were randomised to receive 2%, 5% or 10% (w/w) concentrations of the finished herbal product or the control treatment of Whitfield ointment. Primary efficacy outcome (complete cure): defined as total signs and symptoms score (TSSS) of zero and where applicable mycological cure also defined as a negative mycological culture and microscopic examination was achieved by 30.0%, 34.78%, 75.0% and 91.30% of the control, 2%, 5% and 10% (w/w) EAF-2011 treatments respectively. Safety analyses using urine, biochemical and haematological parameters were normal at the end of the study. Also, no adverse reactions were recorded during the study. The study thus showed all the treatments to be safe and effective for the management of dermatophytes with 10% (w/w) finished herbal product being the most effective treatment.

Objective To establish the pharmacognostic characters for the correct identification and quality control of Hilleria latifolia (H. latifolia), an important herb in Ghanaian folklore medicine, for the treatment of infections, pain and inflammation. Methods The macro-morphological, qualitative and quantitative microscopic features, physicochemical and phytochemical features of the medicinally used parts of H. latifolia were evaluated using standard methods. Results The plant has simple, alternate leaves with entire margin. The lamina is ovate to broadly lanceolate with an acuminate apex. It is hypostomatic with anomocytic stomata. The plant contains abundant prismatic crystals in all parts. Starch grains abound in the roots. The quantitative indices of the leaf and physicochemical parameters have also been established. Conclusions The pharmacognostic features established in this study may be used as part of the pharmacopoeial standard for the correct identification and quality control of H. latifolia.

Leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are protozoan diseases caused respectively by the kinetoplastid protozoan Leishmania parasites transmitted by the female phlebotomine sandflies and Trypanosoma parasites transmitted by the tsetse fly. In the search for agents from tropical medicinal plants to treat these two neglected tropical diseases, serially extracted petroleum ether, dichloromethane and methanol extracts of the leaves of Monodora crispata and Monodora brevipes, and eleven aporphines alkaloids isolated from the dried powdered leaves of the two plants were evaluated against Leishmania donovani promastigotes and Trypanosoma brucei brucei trypomastigotes. The extracts of both plants and the isolated compounds displayed varied levels of antiprotozoal activities. The oxoaporphine compounds, (+)-anolobine (7) and (+)-listeferine (8), exerted the most significant activity against L. donovani (IC50: 14.59 μM) and T. brucei brucei (LC100: 50.02 μM) respectively. This is the first report on the antiprotozoal activity of the isolated compounds. The results offer potential for further studies of the oxoaporphines for enhanced antiprotozoal activity.

Anopyxis klaineana (Pierre) Engl. (Rhizophoraceae) is one of the reputed West African folkloric medicines that has never been investigated for its pharmacological effects or phytochemical constituents. In the present study, the antiinflammatory properties of the stem-bark extracts were evaluated using the carrageenan-induced paw oedema model in chicks. The petroleum ether, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts all showed a time and dose-dependent antiinflammatory effect over the 5-h observation period. Phytochemical analysis of the most active extract (methanol extract) yielded the principal constituent that was identified as methyl angolensate through extensive spectroscopic and X-ray analysis studies. Although slightly less potent (ED50, 4.05 ± 0.0034 mg/kg, orally) than the positive control, diclofenac (ED50, 2.49 ± 0.023, intraperitoneally n = 5), this first ever compound isolated from A. klaineana showed promising antiinflammatory activity that may account to some of the reported medicinal uses of the plant.

Background: The widespread use of herbal medicines in recent years means that issues concerning their quality, safety and efficacy need to be answered. In the current study, the polyherbal formulation EAF-2011 used in the Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine, Mampong- Akwapemfor the management of superficial mycoses was evaluated for its quality and safety. Aim: The study sought to evaluate the quality and safety of the product in the management of superficial mycoses. Method: The method of standardisation using the basic phytochemical screening and the thin layer chromatography procedures was used. The stability was also assessed using the thin layer chromatography, an antimicrobial assay and the physicochemical properties of the product. A safety evaluation of the product was also performed using a skin sensitisation and chronic toxicity test in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Results: The product demonstrated stability during the study period of one year as results obtained from the thin layer chromatography, physicochemical and biological assay did not indicate any significant change in characteristics. Alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, sterols and triterpenes were detected in the product. Three spots obtained by the thin layer chromatography were shown to be ideal for use as analytical markers for the product. Haematological, biochemical, urine and histopathological data at the end of the study did not indicate any adverse effect from the herbal treatments. Conclusion: The study thus showed the ointment to be safe for the management of superficial mycoses. Key words: Analytical markers, chronic toxicity, polyherbal formulation, safety, standardisation, superficial mycoses

Cassia sieberiana D. C. [Caesalpiniaceae] though widely used in traditional medicine as an analgesic in dysmenorrhoea, ulcer, general body pains and in veterinary medicine, there is no report on its standardization. Objective: To establish standards for a partial monograph preparation. Materials and methods: Standardization followed British Pharmacoepoeia Standardization methods. Plant materials were collected and air dried for five days and then oven dried at 52°C for one hour and milled. A quantity of C. sieberiana powdered root was mounted separately in each of 10% iodine, chloral hydrate, phloroglucinol in conc HCl and Sudan III and examined under the microscope to identify the cell types and cell inclusions present. Mounted slides were photographed using digital camera Olympus OIL-8CC. Total ash value, acid insoluble ash, solvent extractives, pH and phytochemical analysis of extracts followed methods as in British Pharmacoepia (BP) 1990. Results: Transverse section (TS) of the root bark shows outermost layer of cork, beneath which is a layer of parenchyma cells and a ring of stone cells. The longitudinal section (LS) of the root bark conforms to the same tissue arrangement. Calcium oxalate crystals are pyramidal shaped with base diagonals measuring 40 to 160μ. Starch grains are oval; length ranging from 60 to 180μ and diameter from 40 to120μ. Total ash; 7.43ȁ8.37, Acid insoluble ash; 4.80ȁ5.50% w/w. Ethanol(70%) extractive; 14.28ȁ14.30% w/w; Chloroform-water extractive; 15.99ȁ19.98%w/w, pH (1% w/v at 28°C); 4.88. Constituents: Anthraquinones, Saponins, Sterols, Steroidal glycosides, Tannins, Triterpenes. Conclusion: Established standards can form the basis for monograph compilation

The essential oil content, composition and the physicochemical properties of Lippia multiflora leaves from twelve different regions in Ghana were characterized in this study. The Ghanaian oils showed a significant variability in their chemical composition and five chemotypes were identified. The oil from Aframso Bridge was yellow with a refractive index (RI) of 1.4853, density (DE) of 0.894 and was dominated by linalool (29%) and germacrene D (28%) with fresh, and slightly medicinal and spicy aroma. Ghanaian samples from Seikwa, Buem Nsuta and Golokwati were characterized by high levels of sesquiterpenes (45–70%). The aroma was medicinal/herbaceous and the color was typically yellow, except the oil from Seikwa which was dark orange-yellow, RI ranging from 1.4920 to 1.5043 and DE 0.893 to 0.93 D. The oils from Nyankpala, Sari, Amantin, Atebubu and Kobre contained high levels of aromatic monoterpenes (p-cymene 14–19%, thymol 30–40%, and thymyl acetate 14–17%). The oils were characterized as spicy a...

Ethnopharmacological relevance Ethnobotanical survey was performed to document medicinal plants employed in the management of malaria in the Bosomtwe and Sekyere East Districts of the Ashanti Region (Ghana), in comparison with the plant ingredients in herbal antimalarial remedies registered by the Ghana Food and Drug Administration. Materials and methods Two hundred and three (203) herbalists from 33 communities within the two districts were interviewed on medicinal plants they use to manage malaria. A literature search was made to determine already documented plants. In addition, 23 finished marketed herbal products indicated for the management of malaria were identified and their labels examined to find out which of the plants mentioned in our survey were listed as ingredients and whether these products are in anyway regulated. Results Ninety-eight (98) species of plants were cited for the management of malaria. In comparison with literature citations, 12 (12.2%) species were reported for the management of malaria for the first time and 20 (20.4%) others for the first time in Ghana. Twenty-three (23) finished marketed herbal antimalarial products examined contained aerial or underground parts of 29 of the plants cited in our survey as ingredients. Twenty-two (22) of these products have been registered by the Ghana Food and Drugs Authority, four (4) of which were included in the recommended herbal medicine list for treating malaria in Ghana. Conclusion This study provides new additions to the inventory of medicinal plants used for the management of malaria and reports the commercial availability and regulation of finished marketed labelled herbal products intended for the treatment of malaria in Ghana.

Objective: Malaria is a major public health problem in Ghana and many indigenes, especially those in rural areas, resort to the use of medicinal plants to treat the disease. The plants: Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae), Theobroma cacao L. (Malvaceae) and Tridax procumbens (L.) L. (Compositae) are used solely or in combination with other medicinal plants to manage malaria and its associated conditions. The leaves of the plants which are normally the main parts employed, were studied for their phytochemistry and antiplasmodial activity to establish their chemical profile and verify the antimalarial claim. Methods: Plant materials were subjected to basic phytochemical screening to identify the major secondary metabolites. The aqueous extracts were evaluated against chloroquine-sensitive 3D7 P. falciparum and chloroquine-resistant W2 P. falciparum strains, using the fluorescence-based SYBR® green I method to determine their antiplasmodial activity. Results: Basic phytochemical screening of the leaves revealed the presence of tannins, flavonoids and alkaloids in all three plant materials. T. cacao and P. americana, in addition, contained purine base alkaloids, triterpenoids including saponins. The aqueous extracts of the leaves showed antiplasmodial activity against the chloroquine-sensitive 3D7 P. falciparum (9.50 ± 1.38 ≤ IC50 ≤ 10.15 ± 0.45 µg/mL) and against chloroquine-resistant W2 P. falciparum strains (6.40 ± 1.94 ≤ IC50 ≤ 44.94 ± 1.12 µg/mL). The aqueous extract of T. cacao was the most active and was more active against W2 than 3D7 P. falciparum. Only T. procumbens displayed cytotoxicity (CC50

Anopyxis klaineana (Pierre) Engl. (Rhizophoraceae) is one of the reputed West African folkloric medicines that has never been investigated for its pharmacological effects or phytochemical constituents. In the present study, the antiinflammatory properties of the stem-bark extracts were evaluated using the carrageenan-induced paw oedema model in chicks. The petroleum ether, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts all showed a time and dose-dependent antiinflammatory effect over the 5-h observation period. Phytochemical analysis of the most active extract (methanol extract) yielded the principal constituent that was identified as methyl angolensate through extensive spectroscopic and X-ray analysis studies. Although slightly less potent (ED50 , 4.05 ± 0.0034 mg/kg, orally) than the positive control, diclofenac (ED50 , 2.49 ± 0.023, intraperitoneally n = 5), this first ever compound isolated from A. klaineana showed promising antiinflammatory activity that may account to some of the reported medicinal uses of the plant.

Anaemia is a widespread public health problem, and in Ghana it is the fourth leading cause of hospital admissions and the second factor contributing to death. Mist Tonica, an herbal haematinic produced by the Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine (CSRPM), Ghana, was assessed for its effectiveness and safety in humans after Ethics Committee approval. Clinically established anaemic-patients aged, 13 years and above, with haemoglobin levels less than 11.5 g/dl and 13.5g/dl for females and males respectively were treated with Mist Tonica, 8.96 g/ 40 mls three times daily for two weeks . The mean haemoglobin rise per week caused by Mist Tonica was 1.92 (0.76) g/dl, range (1.66 – 2.55) g/dl/week and over 88 % of the patients on Mist Tonica had their appetite for food improved. Haematological profile, liver and kidney functions were not adversely affected by Mist Tonica. Results of the study suggest that Mist Tonica is an effective and safe herbal haematinic.

Anaemia is a widespread public health problem, and in Ghana it is the fourth leading cause of hospital admissions and the second factor contributing to death. Mist Tonica, an herbal haematinic produced by the Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine (CSRPM), Ghana, was assessed for its effectiveness and safety in humans after Ethics Committee approval. Clinically established anaemic-patients aged, 13 years and above, with haemoglobin levels less than 11.5 g/dl and 13.5g/dl for females and males respectively were treated with Mist Tonica, 8.96 g/ 40 mls three times daily for two weeks . The mean haemoglobin rise per week caused by Mist Tonica was 1.92 (0.76) g/dl, range (1.66 - 2.55) g/dl/week and over 88 % of the patients on Mist Tonica had their appetite for food improved. Haematological profile, liver and kidney functions were not adversely affected by Mist Tonica. Results of the study suggest that Mist Tonica is an effective and safe herbal haematinic.

Paullinia pinnata L. (Sapindaceae) is an endemic West African plant that is extensively used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases. Previous phytochemical analysis by various groups led to the isolation of several novel lupene-based triterpenene derivatives along with other classes of compounds. As part of our continued phytochemical studies on the roots of this plant, we have now identified yet another novel triterpene, 6α-(3′-methoxy-4′-hydroxybenzoyl)-lup-20(29)-ene-3-one. The identification of the compound through comprehensive spectroscopic studies is discussed.

Phytochemical investigation of the ethanolic extract of the mature fruit of Tetrapheura tetraptera led to the isolation of three flavonoid constituents namely 2', 4, 4'-trihydroxychalcone, 2', 3, 4, 4'- tetrahydroxychalcone and 4', 5, 7-trihydroxyflavanone. The structures were established from 1D and 2D NMR experiments. This is the first isolation of flavonoid constituents in the genus Tetrapleura. Keywords : tetrapheura tetraptera, flavonoid, chalcone, flavanone, 1D and 2D NMR. Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 26(1) 2006: 47-53

The antioxidant activity of a methanol extract of Secamone afzelii stems was tested using the DPPH assay and the active compound was identified as alpha-tocopherol. HPLC determination showed that 0.12% w/w alpha-tocopherol was present in the plant. The total extract also showed effective free radical scavenging activity in the assay for non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation in liposomes with an IC50 value of 90 microg/mL, with alpha-tocopherol isolated from the plant having an IC50 of 15 microg/mL in the same system, thus demonstrating the presence of other antioxidants.

The ethanolic extracts of the leaves and seeds of Bixa orellana showed a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity. The activity of the leaf extract was more pronounced.

Cussonia bancoensis is used in Ghana mainly for the management of pain and treating infectious diseases. This study investigated the antibacterial and antifungal effect of the methanol, ethyl ace-tate and petroleum ether extracts of the stem bark of C. bancoensis by the agar dilution method. The antioxidant activity of the methanol extract was also investigated by DPPH free radical scav-enging assay, total antioxidant capacity and total phenol content determined. The methanol and ethyl acetate extracts inhibited growth of all tested microorganisms with the exception of Strepto-coccus pyogenes in the antimicrobial assay. The minimum inhibitory concentrations ranged from 625 µg mL -1 to 2500 µg mL -1 for susceptible organisms. The petroleum ether extract had no antimi-crobial activity at the concentrations used. The methanol extract scavenged DPPH with an IC 50 value of 2.890 µg mL -1 and a total antioxidant capacity of 110.6 ± 41.15 mg g -1 (ascorbic acid equiva-lent). The total phenolic content expressed as tannic acid equivalent was 43.40 ± 14.70 mg g -1 . The results of this study justifies to some extent the use of C. bancoensis in the treatment of microbial infections and supports the ethnomedical evidence that the plant could be a potential source of natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents. Keywords : Antimicrobial, antioxidant, phytochemical constituents, Cussonia bancoensis

Xylopia aethiopica is a medicinal plant of great repute in West Africa which produces a variety of complex chemical compounds. The fresh and dried fruits, leaf, stem bark and root bark essential oils showed various degrees of activity against the Gram positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus, the Gram negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the yeast-like fungus Candida albicans, using the cup plate method,. However, none of the oils showed activity against Escherichia coli.

A new steroidal lactone of the withanolide group has been isolated from two Datura species and three hybrids and characterized as (20 R ,22 R -5α,12α-dihydroxy-1-oxo-6α, 7α-epoxywitha-2,24-dienolide. The distribution of six withanolides throughout section Stramonium of the genus has been investigated.

The chemical composition of the essential oils obtained from the leaves, the barks of the stem and the root, as well as from the fresh and dried fruits of Xylopia aethiopica, growing in Ghana, was investigated by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analyses. Kovats indices, mass spectra, and standard compounds were used to identify a total of 93 individual compounds. The monoterpene hydrocarbons formed the main portion in all studied samples. β-Pinene was predominant in all cases, while trans-m-mentha-1(7),8-diene was the main compound in the essential oils of the leaves and the barks of roots and stems. Their potential antioxidant activity was also investigated and found to be significant in scavenging superoxide anion radical. Keywords: Xylopia aethiopica; Ghana; volatile constituents; leaves; fruits; stem bark; root bark