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During the eighteenth century, Newport, Rhode Island stood at the centre of the Transatlantic slave trade, producing commodities like rum to be traded for African captives from Senegambia, the Gold Coast, the Bight of Biafra, and the Bight of Benin. These captive men, women and children were then transported to South America, the West Indies, the Chesapeake, Charleston, and Savannah. Those who were not sold in these markets, were labelled as 'refuse,' and endured a second or third voyage to the north to be sold in markets in New York, Newport, or Boston. Through an examination of a court case between prominent Newport merchant, John Banister and wigmaker, David Cummings, this article queries the life of a sick African girl, bought by David Cummings, but rendered useless because of her rapidly declining health due to the 'great pox,' also known as yaws. What conditions allowed for her enslavement? How did she become ill and how was she treated? Lastly, how did the law commodify her bonded existence? By examining the mechanisms that allowed for her enslavement, a young life that was reduced to a monetary value, and the bare labour she was forced to provide, is brought to the fore. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the conception and execution of paper currency schemes in Tokugawa Japan (1603–1868). Paper currency was widely used as a form of local money in early modern Japan, but has received close to no attention in Anglophone scholarship even amid a recent upsurge in interest in the global history of money. From the perspective of monetary history, Tokugawa paper currency presents an intriguing puzzle. Even as paper currencies repeatedly collapsed in value, they remained in common use as an essential component of the early modern monetary system. Using the case of Sendai domain, a large fiefdom in northeastern Japan, the article argues that the monetary practices and expectations of ordinary subjects transformed paper money, created through partnerships between the samurai ruling class and powerful merchant financiers, from a tool meant to serve the interests of state finances into a low‐denomination currency convenient for everyday transactions, resulting in the bills' surprising longevity as a form of small change. Drawing on approaches that centre the role of non‐state and marginal actors in the making of money, it sheds new light on the political economy of late Tokugawa Japan and offers new insights into the global history of money. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Crusades, which continued in Egypt and Syria between 1095-1291, brought Egyptian alum against them, and they were interested in its trade and started to carry raw materials for dyeing European wool. Even in the years when Saladin's struggles with the Crusaders continued, Genoese merchants achieved great income by transporting Egyptian alum from Alexandria to Europe. With the discovery of Anatolian alum mines towards the middle of the thirteenth century, Italian Merchants turned their attention to mines such as Focha, Gediz and Shebinkarahisar. This process has drawn them into a series of events, from power struggles to internal turmoil. In this process, the Italians, who tried to be close to the ruling powers in Anatolia from the Byzantines to the Ottomans, also entered into rivalries among themselves over alum. In this process, they increased their income by helping the Ottomans in the Byzantine and dynastic struggles, and even managed to get their debts erased. With the discovery of European alum in the middle of the fifteenth century, new fractures were experienced. With the revenues of this precious metal, the popes tried to start a new Crusade against the Ottomans, and they used the alum revenues as a weapon. Italian and Neapolitan people, to whom the Popes transferred their rights to these mining enterprises, continued the interests and interests of the Crusades. This new processal so opened the door for the Ottomans to not benefit from an important source of income properly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous legislations, including those in the UAE, have instituted laws to safeguard individuals' reputations and privacy rights in cyberspace. These laws aim to prevent the dissemination of potentially harmful content, regardless of its accuracy. This article delves into how UAE laws protect the privacy of individual merchants, particularly examining the efficacy of Article 44, paragraph three. The article questions the extent to which this penal provision effectively protects merchants' privacy and family life. It notes that while the UAE legislature criminalizes the intentional dissemination of harmful content, including news, images, and data, it fails to explicitly differentiate penalties for harming merchants versus ordinary individuals. The article suggests enhancing penalties for crimes against merchants, especially in cases of severe harm. Additionally, it proposes stricter penalties for public officials who abuse their positions to commit such offenses. These recommendations aim to better protect merchants' privacy rights and deter misconduct in cyberspace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Declined card transactions present a significant problem for the payment industry, causing inconvenience for consumers, lost sales for merchants and lost revenue for card issuers. An analysis of card-based e-commerce across the EEA and UK indicates a decline rate of 10 per cent for domestic transactions and 18 per cent for cross-border transactions, leading to a total declined value of €60bn per annum. Using data obtained from different sources, including merchants' own records, and gateway, acquirer and scheme data, this paper identifies the main reasons why transactions are rejected, grouping them into four categories: valid business declines, avoidable business declines, risk-based declines, and technical declines. The study argues that merchants should focus on reducing decline rates in the latter three categories. Approaches might include use of the schemes' account updater service; localisation of acquiring to the same country as the card issuer, where possible; smart routing to acquirers with higher success rates for the given transaction attributes; use of network tokens; leveraging of strong customer authentication exemption rules; and correction of technical issues in authorisation requests, such as incorrect setting of flags indicating the acceptance environment. According to PSE's analysis, actionable codes account for around 25 per cent of all declines, totalling €15bn of transaction value (and €74m lost interchange for issuers). The paper therefore suggests that those merchants that are prepared to investigate and analyse the underlying causes of their declines have much to gain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the mid-seventeenth century onwards, Kasimbazar emerged as the English East India Company's (EIC) primary market for silk and its textiles. The region surrounding Kasimbazar was prolific in producing silk goods destined for export. Attracted by Bengal silk's substantial profitability, EIC's directors in London envisaged an expansion to regions with existing infrastructure capable of delivering high-quality raw silk and textiles. Subsequently, Mr. Streynsham Master was dispatched to Bengal as a special envoy to strategize this expansion. The establishment of the EIC's sixth factory at Malda directly resulted from this mission. However, the nascent years of the Malda settlement were fraught with challenges, leading company officials to perceive Malda as a subordinate to Hooghly and Kasimbazar with uncertain business potential. But, within two decades, consistent profits began to reshape this perception. Up until the key shifts in 1898 and 1899--EIC acquiring zamindary rights in Calcutta, establishing Fort William as the English headquarters, and the subsequent relocation of the subah capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad in 1706--interactions with local provincial rulers were mired in extortion and bribery. Nonetheless, the handsome profit margins painted a promising outlook for the EIC's future in the region. This paper delves into the initial 25 years after the Malda factory's inception. It evaluates the hurdles faced; the resolutions reached--whether through diplomacy or through petitions to distant Dhaka--the appointment of dadani merchants, the inclusion of pykers, and most notably, the trajectory of business growth and profits during this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the business and social activities of Vasily Vasilievich Krivtsov, a Ekaterinburg merchant of the 2nd guild, who came from the class of serf peasants. It provides information on the early stage of life of Krivtsov, who was a native of Vyazniki uyezd, Vladimir province, and belonged to the community of so-called misfits — merchants engaged in peddling retail trade. The article shows gradual transformation of a small merchant into a big businessman, and describes the development of his commercial activities by expanding the range of traded goods, opening new stores in Ekaterinburg, Perm and other settlements of the Perm province. It also tells about an attempt of Krivtsov to diversify the spheres of his business activities at the expense of participation in the gold industry, which did not bring him any significant dividends. The author explores V. V. Krivtsov’s participation in the city government, including his work as burgomaster and mayor of Ekaterinburg, and his contribution to solving a number of city problems. Examined is the charitable activity of Krivtsov. It was expressed both in the form of personal donations, and cooperation with amateur societies, which were engaged in rendering help to different groups of needy. The author explores the role of Krivtsov in the construction of the Church of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross for a children’s shelter and the bridge on the city pond. The article gives a lot of attention to the study of V. V. Krivtsov’s activity as a churchwarden of the Epiphany Cathedral. He served in this position for over 20 years: during this period, he significantly enlarged the cathedral, helped to purchase new expensive church utensils, to renovate the mural painting, and produce new icons and valuable vestments. Working for the good of church, Krivtsov managed to unite the parishioners and persuade them to donate large sums for the needs of the Epiphany Cathedral. Finally, the author reports on the fates of some V. V. Krivtsov’s descendants which mostly turned out to be tragic.

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Copyright of Dergiabant is the property of Dergiabant and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Sakarya University Journal of Law Faculty (SHD) is the property of Sakarya University Journal of Law Faculty (SHD) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

For over two centuries, Galați was the only port of Moldova. Through which agricultural products from Moldova were exported to the Pontic and Mediterranean regions, also large quantities of food products in the form of army provisions (zaherea) were sent to Istanbul, as well as a lot of objects produced by foreign craftsmen were imported, some of them also reaching neighboring countries. Starting from 1834, Austrian steamships made regular runs to Galați. Also, there was transit trade with the German countries, the importance of the construction of large military ships increased, etc. The locals enjoyed favorable conditions for the production of various material goods, especially the favorable geographical position for carrying out the exchange of goods, which allowed them to earn money from the sale of their products. The approach represents a panoramic presentation of the Galați city in the light of the records and itineraries of several travelers and merchants who had visited it until the beginning of the 19th century. Due to the foreign domination, the number of inhabitants of the town was very small. In the course of time, the town of Galați, as well as other localities in Moldova, suffered numerous material damages due to the military confrontations carried out by the great powers. The city experienced an upswing in its development only after the foreign domination over the Romanian extra-Carpathian territory was liquidated.

One month after the publication of his poem on merchant seafaring, The Shipwreck (1762), William Falconer left merchant sailing to become a junior officer in the Royal Navy. In the midcentury, many commentators believed that the Royal Navy's sailors were superior to merchant sailors. Falconer's response can be traced by contrasting his first edition of The Shipwreck with the revisions he made to the poem after joining the Royal Navy. The revisions address directly the notion that merchant sailors value only financial reward, but then focus on the notion that sailors who fight for king and country are braver than those who move cargo. In the revised narrative of the sailors' battle with the elements, Falconer emphasizes the physical limits to their bravery, and thus suggests that merchant sailors are like Royal Navy sailors because all sailors are equally vulnerable to storms at sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of College of Law Journal for Legal & Political Sciences / Magallat Kulliyyat Al-Qanun Li-L-ulum Al-Qanuniyyat Wa-Al-Siyasiyyat is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article attempts to reconstruct the biography of the 2nd guild merchant of Ekaterinburg — Mikhail Ivanovich Ivanov, a native of the Simbirsk province and a peasant by origin, who was engaged in entrepreneurship in the Urals for more than 40 years. The author considers the main lines of the merchant’s business activity: Ivanov’s trade of wine and vodka, colonial groceries, and bakery production, as well as the search for gold-bearing areas and development of gold mines in the Perm and Orenburg provinces. The article analyzes the evolution of M. I. Ivanov’s views on entrepreneurship, which led to the rejection of a number of areas of his business. Considerable attention is paid to the social and Church activities of M. Ivanov. The author studies the nature and methods of his cooperation with secular and religious organizations and institutions, including the Ekaterinburg City Duma, Society of Trustees of the House of Diligence, and Society for Assistance to insufficient students of the Ekaterinburg Gymnasium, as well as the Ekaterinburg Department of the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society, and Society for Mutual Assistance to Students and Teachers in Church schools of the Ekaterinburg diocese, and others. The article reveals M. I. Ivanov’s contribution to the creation of the House of Diligence in Ekaterinburg, his role in constructing a number of churches in the Perm, Simbirsk and Tobolsk provinces as well as in the famous Kozelsk monastery of Vvedenskaya Optina Pustyn. It shows how a successful, though not extremely wealthy, entrepreneur became one of the most generous benefactors in the history of Ekaterinburg. The author tells about Ivanov’s residence in the hermitage at Optina Pustyn for several years and also reveals the important role of M. I. Ivanov in organizing a visit of the outstanding Kronstadt Archpriest Ioann Ilyich Sergiev to Ekaterinburg.

The idea of a schema is viewed as an organic mechanism by which new experiences are combined with the old ones, and the idea of a schema is viewed as an active organization of previous responses and experiences. New experiences are typically explained to people as being alive, constantly evolving, and affected by each new emotional and cognitive input. While elaborating on this, it is known that all cultural, social, and personal accumulations or experiences are the most effective situations in the individual's memory for the acquisition of new knowledge and behavior. Rather than being formed by discrete, fragmented individual inputs, knowledge acquisition, memory, and behavior are all formed by a combination of these. When the cultural schema is applied in terms of ancient societies, it is possible to assess how those societies' lifestyles and sociocultural resources are reflected in other cultures. Many terms for Canaanite and Phoenician words were drawn from the ancient cultural schema. These phrases capture the Canaanite and Phoenician territories' cultural makeup, way of life, and economic might. The most striking of these are the words purple, merchant and Bible, meaning the Bible, the holy book of Christianity. The reflection of the Phoenicians in the cultural schema of the Greeks led them to name them. In the same way, the Canaanites, who are accepted as the ancestors of the Phoenicians in the Old Testament, are also reflected in the cultural schema of the Hebrews. The aim of this study is to examine the names given to Canaan and Phoenician cultures and phenomena in the cultural schema of Ancient Greek and Near Eastern societies within the framework of western and ancient sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article will discuss the partnership of Abdolhossein Nikpour and the Chambers of Commerce with the Iranian government in managing the national economy from the 1920s until the 1950s. In particular, it challenges the state-society paradigm, where it shows that Nikpour, as well as other merchants and entrepreneurs of the Chambers nationwide, worked with the Iranian government while striving to maintain their economic and political autonomy. Conversely, the Iranian government depended on the expertise of these economic actors. Hence, this article will offer new perspectives on Iran's twentieth-century political economy. Based on their collaborative research, including Iranian, Soviet, and British primary sources, the authors conclude that Nikpour was a driving force of both the Chambers and Iran's modern economy for most of his lifetime, encompassing the interwar, wartime, and early postwar periods. Ultimately, however, Nikpour and the Chambers' power was curtailed by Mohammad Reza Shah in the late 1950s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Mosaic Research is the property of Uludag University, Mosaic Research Center and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Selcuk Law Review / Selçuk Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi is the property of Selcuk Law Review and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Blockchain technology is a shared database of logs of all consumer transactions which are registered on all machines on a network. Both transactions in the system are carried out by consensus processes and to preserve confidentiality all the files contained cannot be changed. Blockchain technology is the fundamental software behind digital currencies like Bitcoin, which is common in the marketplace. Cloud computing is a method of using a network of external machines to store, monitor, and process information, rather than using the local computer or a local personal computer. The software is currently facing multiple problems including lack of data protection, data instability, and reliability. This paper aims to give the highest security for multiple user environments in cloud for storing and accessing the data in blocks. The users who are legitimate are only allowed for storing and accessing the data as like a secured block chain approach. As like the Blockchain which does not require a centralized system for transactions, the proposed system is also independent on centralized network interface. The decentralized system is developed in such a way to avoid counterfeiting. The system enables the fabricator to spend less or null resources to perform the validations for its direct operated stores. This ensures the product fabricator to avoid the circulation of its duplicate products. The customer as an end-user is also ensured to have only the genuine products from the fabricator. The Fabricator (F), Merchant (M) and consumer (C) forms an interconnected triangular structure without allowing any counterfeiting agents in their secured cloud chain. The proposed approach provides the stability in the security system of the cloud using the chaining mechanism within different blocks at each node. It takes roughly 4.7, 6.2, and 7.5 ms, respectively, to register each node in the proposed system for 5, 10, and 15 nodes. The overall registration time for each scenario is 11.9, 26.2, and 53.1 ms, despite the fact that each node’s registration time was greatest for 10 nodes. By looking at the data, it’s clear that the number of nodes is a function of time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a scholarly observation of the history of Burkharan Jews and European Jews who worked in the Russian settlements of the Emirate of Bukhara, their training, numbers, impact on the socio-economic life of the region, use of available benefits, participation in trade and domestic services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thousands of aristocratic emigrants from revolutionary France who found asylum in the independent German city city-state of Hamburg and the neighboring Danish city of Altona were not the only immigrants arriving in the neutral ports. Alongside these flamboyant newcomers, merchants, scholars, artisans, and others continued, as they had for decades, to come in pursuit of the economic opportunities denied them at home. With harbors on the Elbe River just downstream from the North Sea, the two cosmopolitan port cities flourished as wars and revolution roiled the rest of Europe. Diplomatically neutral and open to trade, these two cities opened their doors to newcomers from around the world. Over the decade, the aristocrats, who thought themselves cosmopolitan, tested their welcome in the prosperous ports with no native nobility. While most of the newcomers assimilated readily, contributing to the ports' prosperity, the aristocrats left to reclaim what remained of their estates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Qing History Journal is the property of Renmin University of China, Institute of Qing History and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Paleoparasitological studies have made important contributions to our understanding of the past epidemiology of parasites, infection in past populations and lifestyle in the past. In some cases, these ancient parasites can also provide evidence for long distance travel or migration of people in the past. Three sediment samples from a 15th–16th c. CE latrine from the Spanish nation house in Bruges, Belgium were analysed for preserved helminth eggs using microscopy. Bruges was a major trading centre in medieval Europe, thus it was home to a large merchant population with extensive trading networks. Paleoparasitological analysis revealed a preserved parasite egg from Schistosoma mansoni , which causes intestinal schistosomiasis. Roundworm, whipworm, liver fluke and Taenia tapeworm eggs were also found in the latrine which is consistent with parasites previously found in the local population in the medieval period. These new data provide direct evidence for the movement of S. mansoni outside of its endemic area. Today the vast majority of S. mansoni infections occur in Sub-Saharan Africa, with additional endemic areas in the Arabian peninsula and South America. The introduction of S. mansoni into South America is proposed to have occurred relatively recently in human history, as the result of forced movement of people from Africa to the Americas with the Atlantic slave trade. Thus, this infection may have occurred in a merchant who acquired the parasite during trade voyages to Africa or in an individual living in Africa who migrated to Bruges.

The variability of renewable energy and transmission congestion provide opportunities for arbitrage by merchants in deregulated electricity markets. Merchants strategically invest to maximize their profits. This paper proposes a joint investment framework for renewable energy, transmission lines, and energy storage using the Stackelberg game model. At the upper level, merchants implement investment and operation strategies for deregulated transmission and energy storage to maximize profits. At the middle level, central planners seek to maximize social welfare through investments in centralized renewable energy and energy storage. At the lower level, independent system operators jointly optimize the energy and reserve markets to minimize the total operating costs. Merchants are remunerated through financial rights, which are a settlement method based on locational marginal price. The trilevel optimization problem is reformulated as a tractable single-level one using Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) conditions and strong duality theory. The interaction between merchants and central planners is studied with an example based on the IEEE 30-bus test system. The assignment of weight coefficients to the corresponding stochastic scenarios can help merchants avoid investment risk, and their effectiveness is verified with the IEEE 118-bus test system.

The first English carved stone cadaver or transi monuments appear in the early 15th century. A subset were located on double-decker tombs, many still complete with biers displaying on the top level the recumbent effigy of the commemorated au vif and on the bottom level an effigy au mort. Forty-nine complete or partial carved transi effigies survive in England from the period to 1558, twenty-one of them part of double-decker monuments. To this corpus can now be added a lost carved double-decker example from St Peter's church in Bristol, which was gutted by bombing in the Second World War. Old photographs, drawings and church notes establish that the person commemorated by the cadaver tomb was an armigerous member of the Norton family of upwardly mobile merchants who occupied the Great House by St Peter's church. From 1435 they had an established tradition of burial within the church, with four generations buried here during the period when the double-decker tomb was likely to have been commissioned. Stylistic comparisons with other cadaver monuments suggest that the effigy formerly at St Peter's church most likely commemorates Thomas I (d. 1435) or Thomas II (d. 1449), probably the latter. This is early for such a cutting-edge monument, especially to a layman. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While a vibrant historiography surrounds early modern English seafaring, the vast majority of work has focused on the mercantile and maritime elite. Indeed, low-level seafarers, whose work significantly contributed to the maritime industry on which the English economy was so dependent, have been largely overlooked. In particular, a lack of insight into the lives and careers of English coastal traders has led to a skewed perspective of maritime logistics and of the socio-economic composition of Tudor society. This omission can be partially credited to a lack of qualitative sources pertaining to the lives and careers of low-level seafarers. Although there is a rich seam of quantitative data available through the national customs, few have looked to these sources to understand the social and economic dynamics of the coastal trading community. This paper explores the possibility that a combined approach, utilising prosopography and Social Network Analysis, can reveal the ways in which small- and medium-scale merchants and shipmasters forged connections and established lasting businesses in the face of political and economic instability. Acting as a test case for future study, this paper will propose a methodological approach for the examination of a social and economic group that is often overlooked in the broad historiography, but for whom a large body of valuable quantitative data survives. By combining traditional historical methodologies with Social Network Analysis, this paper offers a new perspective on English maritime history.

The article is devoted to public and charitable activities of the famous representatives of the Nakhichevan elite - the Khatranov brothers. Traditions of charity in the Khatranov family were laid by their grandfather - the city head Harutyun Pogosovich, and then their father. They donated money to repair churches and expand the cemetery. Their descendants, brothers Pavel and Ivan Khatranov, continued their good deeds. Both of them successfully combined entrepreneurial activity with charity, as well as conscientious service for the benefit of their native city. Their whole life was connected with their native city: the Khatranov brothers were born in Nakhichivan-on-Don and ended their days there. One of them - Pavel Egorovich - was a city head and a public representative of the city duma, Ivan Egorovich was a well-known benefactor. The name of Ivan Yegorovich is connected with the opening of an orphanage for Nakhichevan children. He also acted as the executor of his aunt's will, which left money for the construction of an almshouse and a cemetery church. The Khatranov brothers, according to contemporaries, were distinguished by their sensitivity, kindness, responsiveness and generosity. Both of them by their deeds left a good memory among their fellow citizens.

The main problem in this study is how the pattern of parenting children in the family of traders and how the pattern of parenting is applied in the family of traders to support the development of children's talents. The purpose of this study is to find out how the behavior patterns of parents in raising children, knowing what values ​​children get from parenting, and how children act in society. The location of this research is in Lewaja Village, Enrekang Regency because this location is found by many traders. The type of this research is descriptive qualitative. Data collection techniques used are in-depth interviews, observation, and documentation. The sampling technique used the purposive sampling technique. The data analysis technique used is the interactive model analysis that uses three main components, namely data reduction, data presentation, and concluding. In summary, the results of this study are that the role of parents has not been fully implemented properly, because there are still many parents who give their roles to other institutions, this is done due to several considerations because many parents cannot fully supervise their children because they are busy making a living. But some parents teach their education to their children because there are parents who want to play a direct role in shaping the role of children's development. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that directly or indirectly, parents have a very large role in shaping the character and personality values ​​of children.

This article examines the hagiographical writings of two religious communities, that is, the Dadu Panth and the Niranjani Sampraday, in what is now known as Rajasthan, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in order to illuminate how their monastic and lay members, particularly merchants and 'scribal' communities, imagined their religious, social and political worlds. The role of merchant and scribal groups in the origin and development of such so-called 'nirguṇ sant' bhakti movements has been largely overlooked, the assumption being that these movements drew their following primarily from members of subaltern communities. Yet a close reading of these hagiographical sources reveals that merchants and scribes played a central role in shaping the theological and literary character of these movements, and in turn these movements reorganised the social and financial relationships within these mercantile communities. By focusing on such 'middle' groups—that is, groups that mediated intellectual, literary and economic exchanges between different spaces and institutions such as the monastery, the court and the bazaar—historians, as well as scholars of literature and religion, can gain insight into how merchant and scribal groups helped to re-form notions of the individual, community and polity in early modern North India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main point of the research from the middle of the XIX. century until the first quarter of the XX. century to determine their status of economic and commercial life of non-Muslim merchants who lived in Kütahya during this period, to compare them to the Muslims in Kütahya in the same period to seek answers to the questions of what level they are economically. Non-Muslim Ottoman citizens who displaying a negative image on political issues, their social and economic has not been adequately analysed. In this context, in order to have better understanding of the economic and commercial life of non-Muslim Ottoman citizens, local history of reviews need to be combined. In this context, economic-commercial lives of non-Muslims within a certain area both our economic history and in terms of finding out coexistence skills of elements with different languages, religions and cultures are important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan Journal for Legal Studies is the property of Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Article 1 of the Commercial Code of 1885 prescribes that: «They are merchants, for the purposes of this Code: 1°. Those who, having the legal capacity to carry out business, are habitually engaged in it. 2. The mercantile or industrial companies that are constituted in accordance with this Code». While the legal person, the commercial or industrial company, can always be classified as a merchant in our Law, when in the presence of a natural person, the attribution of the status of merchant to the latter raises some doubt. The present work aims to resolve this uncertainty by making a corrective interpretation of the aforementioned precept, the wording of which is imprecise. It has been reasoned and justified that being a trader does not always coincide with the exercise of trade and, thus, one can be a trader, without doing business and doing business without deserving the qualification of a trader. In this vein, the presence of the requirement of the exercise of trade in one's own name has been deepened. The implementation, in various Autonomous Communities, of the so-called Autonomous Registries of merchants has also been studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was commissioned to investigate the level of risk and Barriers associated with mobile money transactions in Ghana. It seeked to assess the level of risk perception among mobile money users and merchants. In addition to the above, the paper examined behaviour and attitudes exhibited by customers and merchants during mobile money transactions. This was to help in ascertaining whether or not both parties are being susceptible to high risk or not. The empirical evidence showed that, mobile money transactions have become the most popular and preferred method of sending and receiving payments in Africa since the vast majority of the Continent’s population are rural dwellers with Ghana not being an exception. The population for the study was customers and merchants of the MTN brand of mobile money from which five hundred and fifty (550) respondents were sampled for the study. The methodology used was quantitative where primary data was sort through administration of questionnaire within the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis. The paper discovered a higher-level patronage of mobile money among respondents. It emerged that, there were eminent risks associated with mobile money operations although the growth prospects appeared to be greater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Council Directive 93/13/a of April 5, 1993 of unfair terms in consumer contracts, transposed into national legislation by Law no. 193/2000 on unfair terms in contracts concluded between merchants and consumers, constitutes the legal basis for numerous disputes between individuals and banks, through which the abusive character of some clauses in loan contracts is claimed. One of the defenses invoked by credit institutions to exclude the application of Law no. 193/2000 is the borrower's lack of consumer status, motivated by the fact that the amount borrowed was intended for a professional or commercial activity and was not used for personal needs of the natural person. In the present study, we propose to analyze the conditions that the natural person must fulfill in order to be considered a consumer and be able to benefit from the provisions of consumer protection, analyzing both the jurisprudence of the ECJ and the jurisprudence of national courts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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