Search

Mensen die in de buurt van Schiphol wonen staan regelmatig bloot aan verhoogde concentraties ultrafijn stof. Ultrafijn stof is het aantal zeer kleine deeltjes in de lucht (kleiner dan 0,1 micrometer). De blootstelling aan ultrafijn stof rond Schiphol kan kortdurend effect hebben op de gezondheid, blijkt uit onderzoek van het RIVM. Op zulke dagen hebben kinderen meer last van luchtwegklachten, zoals kortademigheid en piepende ademhaling. Ook gebruiken kinderen dan meer medicijnen. De effecten treden vooral op bij kinderen die al klachten aan de luchtwegen hebben en hiervoor al medicijnen gebruiken. Bij kinderen en gezonde volwassenen zijn kortdurende verminderingen in de longfunctie gemeten en bij de gezonde volwassen is ook kortdurende vermindering van de hartfunctie gemeten bij tijdelijk hogere blootstelling. Gemiddeld genomen zijn deze veranderingen klein en hoeven ze niet tot directe gezondheidsklachten te leiden. Voor individuen die hiervoor gevoelig zijn, bijvoorbeeld omdat ze astma of hartaandoeningen hebben, kunnen deze veranderingen groter zijn. De effecten treden zowel op bij ultrafijn stof afkomstig van vliegverkeer als bij ultrafijn stof van andere bronnen, zoals wegverkeer. Er zijn geen aanwijzingen gevonden dat de gezondheidseffecten van het vliegverkeer anders zijn dan die van het wegverkeer. De conclusies zijn gebaseerd op drie deelstudies: een studie met 191 basisschoolkinderen in woonkernen vlakbij Schiphol, een studie met 21 gezonde volwassenen direct naast Schiphol en een laboratoriumstudie met longcellen. De resultaten van dit onderzoek geven nog geen inzicht in mogelijke lange termijn gezondheidseffecten van ultrafijnstof. Dit komt aan bod in het deelonderzoek naar de effecten van langdurige blootstelling aan ultrafijn stof van vliegverkeer. De resultaten hiervan worden in 2021 verwacht.

Background Diesel engine exhaust (DEE) exposure causes lung cancer, but the molecular mechanisms by which this occurs are not well understood. Objectives To assess transcriptomic alterations in nasal epithelium of DEE-exposed factory workers to better understand the cellular and molecular effects of DEE. Methods Nasal epithelial brushings were obtained from 41 diesel engine factory workers exposed to relatively high levels of DEE (17.2–105.4 μg/m3), and 38 unexposed workers from factories without DEE exposure. mRNA was profiled for gene expression using Affymetrix microarrays. Linear modeling was used to identify differentially expressed genes associated with DEE exposure and interaction effects with current smoking status. Pathway enrichment among differentially expressed genes was assessed using EnrichR. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was used to compare gene expression patterns between datasets. Results 225 genes had expression associated with DEE exposure after adjusting for smoking status (FDR q < 0.25) and were enriched for genes in pathways related to oxidative stress response, cell cycle pathways such as MAPK/ERK, protein modification, and transmembrane transport. Genes up-regulated in DEE-exposed individuals were enriched among the genes most up-regulated by cigarette smoking in a previously reported bronchial airway smoking dataset. We also found that the DEE signature was enriched among the genes most altered in two previous studies of the effects of acute DEE on PBMC gene expression. An exposure-response relationship was demonstrated between air levels of elemental carbon and the first principal component of the DEE signature. Conclusions A gene expression signature was identified for workers occupationally exposed to DEE that was altered in an exposure-dependent manner and had some overlap with the effects of smoking and the effects of acute DEE exposure. This is the first study of gene expression in nasal epithelial cells of workers heavily exposed to DEE and provides new insights into the molecular alterations that occur with DEE exposure.

Land use regression (LUR) models for Ultrafine Particles (UFP) have been developed to assess health effects of long-term average UFP exposure in epidemiological studies. Associations between LUR modeled residential outdoor and measured long-term personal exposure to UFP have never been evaluated, adding uncertainty in interpretation of epidemiological studies of UFP. Our aim was to assess how predictions of recently developed LUR models for UFP compared to measured average personal UFP exposure in four European areas. Personal UFP exposure was measured in 154 adults from Basel (Switzerland), Amsterdam and Utrecht (the Netherlands), Norwich (United Kingdom), and Turin (Italy). Subjects performed three 24-h exposure measurements by carrying a real-time monitor measuring particles between 10 and 300 nm (MiniDisc). Subjects reported whereabouts and indoor sources of UFP in questionnaires. In Basel and the Netherlands contemporaneously residential outdoor UFP concentrations were monitored. Area-specific LUR models were applied to model residential outdoor UFP concentrations. Associations between modeled and measured UFP concentrations were assessed with linear regression. LUR model predictions were significantly associated with median but not mean personal UFP exposures, likely because of the high impact of indoor peaks on mean personal exposures. Regression slopes (±se) combined for the four areas were 0.12 ± 0.04 for median and −0.06 ± 0.17 for mean personal exposure. The LUR model explained variance of the median personal exposure less than variance of residential outdoor measurements. Associations did not change when personal exposure was calculated for the time spent at home or when presence of indoor sources was incorporated in the regression models. Regression slopes for measured residential outdoor versus personal exposure were smaller for UFP (0.16 ± 0.04) than for simultaneously measured PM2.5 and soot (0.32 ± 0.10 and 0.43 ± 0.06). Our findings provide some support for the use of LUR models to estimate long-term exposure to ambient generated UFP in epidemiological studies.

Oxidative potential (OP) has been suggested as a health-relevant measure of air pollution. Little information is available about OP spatial variation and the possibility to model its spatial variability. Our aim was to measure the spatial variation of OP within and between 10 European study areas. The second aim was to develop land use regression (LUR) models to explain the measured spatial variation. OP was determined with the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay in ten European study areas. DTT of PM2.5 was measured at 16–40 sites per study area, divided over street, urban and regional background sites. Three two-week samples were taken per site in a one-year period in three different seasons. We developed study-area specific LUR models and a LUR model for all study areas combined to explain the spatial variation of OP. Significant contrasts between study areas in OP were found. OP DTT levels were highest in southern Europe. DTT levels at street sites were on average 1.10 times higher than at urban background locations. In 5 of the 10 study areas LUR models could be developed with a median R2 of 33%. A combined study area model explained 30% of the measured spatial variability. Overall, LUR models did not explain spatial variation well, possibly due to low levels of OP DTT and a lack of specific predictor variables. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd

Background: Particulate matter (PM) air pollution is a human lung carcinogen; however, the components responsible have not been identified. We assessed the associations between PM components and lung cancer incidence. Methods: We used data from 14 cohort studies in eight European countries. We geocoded baseline addresses and assessed air pollution with land-use regression models for eight elements (Cu, Fe, K, Ni, S, Si, V and Zn) in size fractions of PM2.5 and PM10. We used Cox regression models with adjustment for potential confounders for cohort-specific analyses and random effect models for meta-analysis. Results: The 245,782 cohort members contributed 3,229,220 person–years at risk. During follow-up (mean, 13.1 years), 1878 incident cases of lung cancer were diagnosed. In the meta-analyses, elevated hazard ratios (HRs) for lung cancer were associated with all elements except V; none was statistically significant. In analyses restricted to participants who did not change residence during follow-up, statistically significant associations were found for PM2.5 Cu (HR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.01–1.53 per 5 ng/m3), PM10 Zn (1.28; 1.02–1.59 per 20 ng/m3), PM10 S (1.58; 1.03–2.44 per 200 ng/m3), PM10 Ni (1.59; 1.12–2.26 per 2 ng/m3) and PM10 K (1.17; 1.02–1.33 per 100 ng/m3). In two-pollutant models, associations between PM10 and PM2.5 and lung cancer were largely explained by PM2.5 S. Conclusions: This study indicates that the association between PM in air pollution and lung cancer can be attributed to various PM components and sources. PM containing S and Ni might be particularly important. Keywords: Air pollution, Particulate matter, Sulfur, Nickel, Cohort study, Lung cancer

Background: Particulate matter (PM) air pollution is a human lung carcinogen; however, the components responsible have not been identified. We assessed the associations between PM components and lung cancer incidence. Methods: We used data from 14 cohort studies in eight European countries. We geocoded baseline addresses and assessed air pollution with land-use regression models for eight elements (Cu, Fe, K, Ni, S, Si, V and Zn) in size fractions of PM2.5 and PM10. We used Cox regression models with adjustment for potential confounders for cohort-specific analyses and random effect models for meta-analysis. Results: The 245,782 cohort members contributed 3,229,220person-years at risk. During follow-up (mean, 13.1 years), 1878 incident cases of lung cancer were diagnosed. In the meta-analyses, elevated hazard ratios (HRs) for lung cancer were associated with all elements except V; none was statistically significant. In analyses restricted to participants who did not change residence during follow-up, statistically significant associations were found for PM2.5 Cu (HR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.01-1.53 per 5 ng/m3), PM10 Zn (1.28; 1.02-1.59 per 20 ng/m3), PM10 S (1.58; 1.03-2.44 per 200 ng/m3), PM10 Ni (1.59; 1.12-2.26 per 2 ng/m3) and PM10 K (1.17; 1.02-1.33 per 100 ng/m3). In two-pollutant models, associations between PM10 and PM2.5 and lung cancer were largely explained by PM2.5 S. Conclusions: This study indicates that the association between PM in air pollution and lung cancer can be attributed to various PM components and sources. PM containing S and Ni might be particularly important. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.

Background: Studies have shown associations between mortality and long-term exposure to particulate matter air pollution. Few cohort studies have estimated the effects of the elemental composition of particulate matter on mortality. oBjectives: Our aim was to study the association between natural-cause mortality and long-term exposure to elemental components of particulate matter. Methods: Mortality and confounder data from 19 European cohort studies were used. Residential exposure to eight a priori–selected components of particulate matter (PM) was characterized following a strictly standardized protocol. Annual average concentrations of copper, iron, potassium, nickel, sulfur, silicon, vanadium, and zinc within PM size fractions ≤ 2.5 μm (PM2.5) and ≤ 10 μm (PM10) were estimated using land-use regression models. Cohort-specific statistical analyses of the associations between mortality and air pollution were conducted using Cox proportional hazards models using a common protocol followed by meta-analysis. results: The total study population consisted of 291,816 participants, of whom 25,466 died from a natural cause during follow-up (average time of follow-up, 14.3 years). Hazard ratios were positive for almost all elements and statistically significant for PM2.5 sulfur (1.14; 95% CI: 1.06, 1.23 per 200 ng/m3). In a two-pollutant model, the association with PM2.5 sulfur was robust to adjustment for PM2.5 mass, whereas the association with PM2.5 mass was reduced. conclusions: Long-term exposure to PM2.5 sulfur was associated with natural-cause mortality. This association was robust to adjustment for other pollutants and PM2.5. © 2015, Public Health Services, US Dept of Health and Human Services. All rights reserved.

An increasing number of epidemiological studies suggest that adverse health effects of air pollution may be related to particulate matter (PM) composition, particularly trace metals. However, we lack comprehensive data on the spatial distribution of these elements.We measured PM2.5 and PM10 in twenty study areas across Europe in three seasonal two-week periods over a year using Harvard impactors and standardized protocols. In each area, we selected street (ST), urban (UB) and regional background (RB) sites (totaling 20) to characterize local spatial variability. Elemental composition was determined by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis of all PM2.5 and PM10 filters. We selected a priori eight (Cu, Fe, K, Ni, S, Si, V, Zn) well-detected elements of health interest, which also roughly represented different sources including traffic, industry, ports, and wood burning.PM elemental composition varied greatly across Europe, indicating different regional influences. Average street to urban background ratios ranged from 0.90 (V) to 1.60 (Cu) for PM2.5 and from 0.93 (V) to 2.28 (Cu) for PM10.Our selected PM elements were variably correlated with the main pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, PM2.5 absorbance, NO2 and NOx) across Europe: in general, Cu and Fe in all size fractions were highly correlated (Pearson correlations above 0.75); Si and Zn in the coarse fractions were modestly correlated (between 0.5 and 0.75); and the remaining elements in the various size fractions had lower correlations (around 0.5 or below). This variability in correlation demonstrated the distinctly different spatial distributions of most of the elements. Variability of PM10_Cu and Fe was mostly due to within-study area differences (67% and 64% of overall variance, respectively) versus between-study area and exceeded that of most other traffic-related pollutants, including NO2 and soot, signaling the importance of non-tailpipe (e.g., brake wear) emissions in PM. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.

Background Few studies on long-term exposure to air pollution and mortality have been reported from Europe. Within the multicentre European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE), we aimed to investigate the association between natural-cause mortality and long-term exposure to several air pollutants. Methods We used data from 22 European cohort studies, which created a total study population of 367 251 participants. All cohorts were general population samples, although some were restricted to one sex only. With a strictly standardised protocol, we assessed residential exposure to air pollutants as annual average concentrations of particulate matter (PM) with diameters of less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5), less than 10 μm (PM 10), and between 10 μm and 2.5 μm (PMcoarse), PM2.5 absorbance, and annual average concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NO2 and NOx) with land use regression models. We also investigated two traffic intensity variables-traffic intensity on the nearest road (vehicles per day) and total traffic load on all major roads within a 100 m buffer. We did cohort-specific statistical analyses using confounder models with increasing adjustment for confounder variables, and Cox proportional hazards models with a common protocol. We obtained pooled effect estimates through a random-effects metaanalysis. Findings The total study population consisted of 367 251 participants who contributed 5 118 039 person-years at risk (average follow-up 13.9 years), of whom 29 076 died from a natural cause during follow-up. A significantly increased hazard ratio (HR) for PM2.5 of 1.07 (95% CI 1.02-1.13) per 5 μg/m3 was recorded. No heterogeneity was noted between individual cohort effect estimates (I2 p value=0.95). HRs for PM2.5 remained significantly raised even when we included only participants exposed to pollutant concentrations lower than the European annual mean limit value of 25 μg/m3 (HR 1.06, 95% CI 1.00-1.12) or below 20 μg/m3 (1.07, 1.01-1.13). Interpretation Long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution was associated with natural-cause mortality, even within concentration ranges well below the present European annual mean limit value.

Land use regression (LUR) models have been used to model concentrations of mainly traffic-related air pollutants (nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM) mass or absorbance). Few LUR models are published of PM composition, whereas the interest in health effects related to particle composition is increasing. The aim of our study was to evaluate LUR models of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), hopanes/steranes, and elemental and organic carbon (EC/OC) content of PM2.5. In 10 European study areas, PAH, hopanes/steranes, and EC/OC concentrations were measured at 16-40 sites per study area. LUR models for each study area were developed on the basis of annual average concentrations and predictor variables including traffic, population, industry, natural land obtained from geographic information systems. The highest median model explained variance (R2) was found for EC - 84%. The median R2 was 51% for OC, 67% for benzo[a]pyrene, and 38% for sum of hopanes/steranes, with large variability between study areas. Traffic predictors were included in most models. Population and natural land were included frequently as additional predictors. The moderate to high explained variance of LUR models and the overall moderate correlation with PM2.5 model predictions support the application of especially the OC and PAH models in epidemiological studies. © 2014 American Chemical Society.

Rationale: Prospective cohort studies have shown that chronic exposure to particulate matter and traffic-related air pollution is associated with reduced survival. However, the effects on nonmalignant respiratory mortality are less studied, and the data reported are less consistent. Objectives: We have investigated the relationship of long-term exposure to air pollution and nonmalignant respiratory mortality in 16 cohorts with individual level data within the multicenter European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE). Methods: Data from 16 ongoing cohort studies from Europe were used. The total number of subjects was 307,553. There were 1,559 respiratory deaths during follow-up. Measurements and Main Results: Air pollution exposure was estimated by land use regression models at the baseline residential addresses of study participants and traffic-proximity variables were derived from geographical databases following a standardized procedure within the ESCAPE study. Cohort-specific hazard ratios obtained by Cox proportional hazard models from standardized individual cohort analyses were combined using metaanalyses. We found no significant associations between air pollution exposure and nonmalignant respiratory mortality. Most hazard ratios were slightly below unity, with the exception of the traffic-proximity indicators. Conclusions: In this study of 16 cohorts, there was no association between air pollution exposure and nonmalignant respiratorymortality.Copyright © 2014 by the American Thoracic Society.

Limited information is available on the contribution of organic components in particulate matter to health effects related to fine particles. Spatial variability of specific fine particle organic components has not been assessed with consistent methods. The aim of this paper is to assess spatial variation of organic components of fine particles within and between European study areas. Highly standardized measurements of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), hopanes/steranes, elemental/organic carbon (EC/OC) and levoglucosan were performed measured in ten study areas across Europe. In each study area, measurements were conducted at street, urban and regional background sites. Three two-week samples were taken per site and the annual average levels of pollutants were calculated using continuous measurements at one background site as a reference.Substantial variations within and between the study areas were found. EC/OC and hopanes/steranes concentrations were highest in southern European study areas and lowest in northern locations. PAH concentrations were lowest in London/Oxford and highest in Copenhagen, Rome and Athens. Concentrations at street locations were higher than at background locations in all study areas and for all components. However, these differences varied considerably between study areas and components. EC had the highest median street to urban background ratio (1.62), OC the lowest (1.32). EC was highly correlated with NOx and PM2.5 absorbance in all areas, with median r=0.85 and r=0.89, respectively. The correlation between OC and other components was variable, with a median correlation of 0.65 with PM2.5 mass and a weak (0.18) correlation with σhopanes/steranes. σPAH correlated moderately with EC (r=0.59) and weakly with ∑hopanes/steranes (r=0.36).In conclusion, substantial variability was found in spatial patterns of atmospheric EC, OC, PAH and hopanes/steranes both within and between European study areas. The application of this highly standardized measurement approach across different locations will contribute to a consistent assessment of air pollutant levels and potentially contribute to understanding health effects associated with them. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

Background: Associations between long-term exposure to ambient particulate matter (PM) and cardiovascular (CVD) mortality have been widely recognized. However, health effects of long-term exposure to constituents of PM on total CVD mortality have been explored in a single study only. Aims: The aim of this study was to examine the association of PM composition with cardiovascular mortality. Methods: We used data from 19 European ongoing cohorts within the framework of the ESCAPE (European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects) and TRANSPHORM (Transport related Air Pollution and Health impacts - Integrated Methodologies for Assessing Particulate Matter) projects. Residential annual average exposure to elemental constituents within particle matter smaller than 2.5 and 10μm (PM2.5 and PM10) was estimated using Land Use Regression models. Eight elements representing major sources were selected a priori (copper, iron, potassium, nickel, sulfur, silicon, vanadium and zinc). Cohort-specific analyses were conducted using Cox proportional hazards models with a standardized protocol. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to calculate combined effect estimates. Results: The total population consisted of 322,291 participants, with 9545 CVD deaths. We found no statistically significant associations between any of the elemental constituents in PM2.5 or PM10 and CVD mortality in the pooled analysis. Most of the hazard ratios (HRs) were close to unity, e.g. for PM10 Fe the combined HR was 0.96 (0.84-1.09). Elevated combined HRs were found for PM2.5 Si (1.17, 95% CI: 0.93-1.47), and S in PM2.5 (1.08, 95% CI: 0.95-1.22) and PM10 (1.09, 95% CI: 0.90-1.32). Conclusion: In a joint analysis of 19 European cohorts, we found no statistically significant association between long-term exposure to 8 elemental constituents of particles and total cardiovascular mortality. •Few studies explored long term effects of particle composition exposure to cardiovascular mortality.•We included a large population of 322,291 subjects from 19 cohorts in 12 countries of Europe.•Standardized cohort specific analyses were conducted individually and the results were pooled in meta-analysis.•We found no significant association between elemental constituents representing major sources and cardiovascular mortality.•Positive though non-significant associations were found for S and Si. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

Background: Air pollution has been associated with cardiovascular mortality, but it remains unclear as to whether specific pollutants are related to specific cardiovascular causes of death. Within the multicenter European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE), we investigated the associations of long-term exposure to several air pollutants with all cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality, as well as with specific cardiovascular causes of death. Methods: Data from 22 European cohort studies were used. Using a standardized protocol, study area-specific air pollution exposure at the residential address was characterized as annual average concentrations of the following: nitrogen oxides (NO2and NOx); particles with diameters of less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5), less than 10 μm (PM10), and 10 μm to 2.5 μm (PMcoarse); PM2.5absorbance estimated by land-use regression models; and traffic indicators. We applied cohort-specific Cox proportional hazards models using a standardized protocol. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to obtain pooled effect estimates. Results: The total study population consisted of 367,383 participants, with 9994 deaths from CVD (including 4,992 from ischemic heart disease, 2264 from myocardial infarction, and 2484 from cerebrovascular disease). All hazard ratios were approximately 1.0, except for particle mass and cerebrovascular disease mortality; for PM2.5, the hazard ratio was 1.21 (95% confidence interval = 0.87-1.69) per 5 μg/m and for PM10, 1.22 (0.91-1.63) per 10 μg/m. Conclusion: In a joint analysis of data from 22 European cohorts, most hazard ratios for the association of air pollutants with mortality from overall CVD and with specific CVDs were approximately 1.0, with the exception of particulate mass and cerebrovascular disease mortality for which there was suggestive evidence for an association. Copyright © 2014 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Background: Ambient air pollution is suspected to cause lung cancer. We aimed to assess the association between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and lung cancer incidence in European populations. Methods: This prospective analysis of data obtained by the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects used data from 17 cohort studies based in nine European countries. Baseline addresses were geocoded and we assessed air pollution by land-use regression models for particulate matter (PM) with diameter of less than 10 μm (PM10), less than 2·5 μm (PM2·5), and between 2·5 and 10 μm (PMcoarse), soot (PM2·5absorbance), nitrogen oxides, and two traffic indicators. We used Cox regression models with adjustment for potential confounders for cohort-specific analyses and random effects models for meta-analyses. Findings: The 312-944 cohort members contributed 4-013-131 person-years at risk. During follow-up (mean 12·8 years), 2095 incident lung cancer cases were diagnosed. The meta-analyses showed a statistically significant association between risk for lung cancer and PM10 (hazard ratio [HR] 1·22 [95% CI 1·03-1·45] per 10 μg/m3). For PM2·5 the HR was 1·18 (0·96-1·46) per 5 μg/m3. The same increments of PM10 and PM2·5 were associated with HRs for adenocarcinomas of the lung of 1·51 (1·10-2·08) and 1·55 (1·05-2·29), respectively. An increase in road traffic of 4000 vehicle-km per day within 100 m of the residence was associated with an HR for lung cancer of 1·09 (0·99-1·21). The results showed no association between lung cancer and nitrogen oxides concentration (HR 1·01 [0·95-1·07] per 20 μg/m3) or traffic intensity on the nearest street (HR 1·00 [0·97-1·04] per 5000 vehicles per day). Interpretation: Particulate matter air pollution contributes to lung cancer incidence in Europe. Funding: European Community's Seventh Framework Programme. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

The ESCAPE study (European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects) investigates relationships between long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution and health using cohort studies across Europe. This paper analyses the spatial variation of PM2.5, PM2.5 absorbance, PM10 and PMcoarse concentrations between and within 20 study areas across Europe.We measured NO2, NOx, PM2.5, PM2.5 absorbance and PM10 between October 2008 and April 2011 using standardized methods. PMcoarse was determined as the difference between PM10 and PM2.5. In each of the twenty study areas, we selected twenty PM monitoring sites to represent the variability in important air quality predictors, including population density, traffic intensity and altitude. Each site was monitored over three 14-day periods spread over a year, using Harvard impactors. Results for each site were averaged after correcting for temporal variation using data obtained from a reference site, which was operated year-round.Substantial concentration differences were observed between and within study areas. Concentrations for all components were higher in Southern Europe than in Western and Northern Europe, but the pattern differed per component with the highest average PM2.5 concentrations found in Turin and the highest PMcoarse in Heraklion. Street/urban background concentration ratios for PMcoarse (mean ratio 1.42) were as large as for PM2.5 absorbance (mean ratio 1.38) and higher than those for PM2.5 (1.14) and PM10 (1.23), documenting the importance of non-tailpipe emissions. Correlations between components varied between areas, but were generally high between NO2 and PM2.5 absorbance (average R2 = 0.80). Correlations between PM2.5 and PMcoarse were lower (average R2 = 0.39). Despite high correlations, concentration ratios between components varied, e.g. the NO2/PM2.5 ratio varied between 0.67 and 3.06.In conclusion, substantial variability was found in spatial patterns of PM2.5, PM2.5 absorbance, PM10 and PMcoarse. The highly standardized measurement of particle concentrations across Europe will contribute to a consistent assessment of health effects across Europe. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.

The ESCAPE study (European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects) investigates long-term effects of exposure to air pollution on human health in Europe. This paper documents the spatial variation of measured NO2 and NOx concentrations between and within 36 ESCAPE study areas across Europe.In all study areas NO2 and NOx were measured using standardized methods between October 2008 and April 2011. On average, 41 sites were selected per study area, including regional and urban background as well as street sites. The measurements were conducted in three different seasons, using Ogawa badges. Average concentrations for each site were calculated after adjustment for temporal variation using data obtained from a routine monitor background site.Substantial spatial variability was found in NO2 and NOx concentrations between and within study areas; 40% of the overall NO2 variance was attributable to the variability between study areas and 60% to variability within study areas. The corresponding values for NOx were 30% and 70%. The within-area spatial variability was mostly determined by differences between street and urban background concentrations. The street/urban background concentration ratio for NO2 varied between 1.09 and 3.16 across areas. The highest median concentrations were observed in Southern Europe, the lowest in Northern Europe.In conclusion, we found significant contrasts in annual average NO2 and NOx concentrations between and especially within 36 study areas across Europe. Epidemiological long-term studies should therefore consider different approaches for better characterization of the intra-urban contrasts, either by increasing of the number of monitors or by modelling. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.

Purpose: The concentrations of PM10 mass, PM2.5 mass and particle number were continuously measured for 18 months in urban background locations across Europe to determine the spatial and temporal variability of particulate matter. Methods: Daily PM10 and PM2.5 samples were continuously collected from October 2002 to April 2004 in background areas in Helsinki, Athens, Amsterdam and Birmingham. Particle mass was determined using analytical microbalances with precision of 1 μg. Pre- and post-reflectance measurements were taken using smoke-stain reflectometers. One-minute measurements of particle number were obtained using condensation particle counters. Results: The 18-month mean PM10 and PM2.5 mass concentrations ranged from 15.4 μg/m3 in Helsinki to 56.7 μg/m3 in Athens and from 9.0 μg/m3 in Helsinki to 25.0 μg/m3 in Athens, respectively. Particle number concentrations ranged from 10,091 part/cm3 in Helsinki to 24,180 part/cm3 in Athens with highest levels being measured in winter. Fine particles accounted for more than 60% of PM10 with the exception of Athens where PM2.5 comprised 43% of PM10. Higher PM mass and number concentrations were measured in winter as compared to summer in all urban areas at a significance level p < 0.05. Conclusions: Significant quantitative and qualitative differences for particle mass across the four urban areas in Europe were observed. These were due to strong local and regional characteristics of particulate pollution sources which contribute to the heterogeneity of health responses. In addition, these findings also bear on the ability of different countries to comply with existing directives and the effectiveness of mitigation policies. © 2011 Springer-Verlag.

Recent interest has focused on the health effects of ultrafine particles because of the documented toxicity and the larger concentration contrast near motorways of UFP than for PM10 or PM2.5. There are only few studies that have measured UFP at inner-city streets simultaneously with other PM components. The aim of this study was to compare the contrast of UFP, PM(10) and soot measured simultaneously at 3 inner-city locations, namely a moderately busy street (15,000 vehicles/day), a city and a suburban background location. Simultaneously, measurements of particle number concentrations (PNC), PM(10) and soot have been conducted on three locations in and around Utrecht, a medium-sized city in the Netherlands for 20 weekdays in autumn 2008. Measurements were done for 6-h during afternoon and early evening. The mean PNC at the street location was more than 3 times higher than at the two background locations. The contrast was similar for soot concentrations. In PM(10) concentrations less contrast was found, namely 1.8 times. Mean PNC concentrations were poorly correlated with PM(10) and soot. At the street location, high temporal variation of PNC concentrations occurred within each sampling day, probably related to variations in traffic volumes, high-emission individual vehicles and wind direction. Temporal variation was smaller at the two background locations. Occasional unexplained short-term peaks occurred at the suburban background location. A relatively high correlation between PNC minute values at the two background locations was found, pointing to similar area-wide sources. Typically low correlations were found with the street locations, consistent with the dominant impact of local traffic. A large contrast between two background locations and a moderately busy urban street location was found for PNC and soot, comparable to previous studies of much busier motorways. Temporal variation of PNC was higher at the street location and uncorrelated with background variations.

Background: Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in the water and related that to mutagenicity. Objectives: We performed a comprehensive identification of DBPs and disinfectant species in waters from public swimming pools in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, that disinfect with either chlorine or bromine and we determined the mutagenicity of the waters to compare with the analytical results. Methods: We used gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to measure trihalomethanes in water, GC with electron capture detection for air, low- and high-resolution GC/MS to comprehensively identify DBPs, photometry to measure disinfectant species (free chlorine, monochloroamine, dichloramine, and trichloramine) in the waters, and an ion chromatography method to measure trichloramine in air. We assessed mutagenicity with the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. Results: We identified > 100 DBPs, including many nitrogen-containing DBPs that were likely formed from nitrogen-containing precursors from human inputs, such as urine, sweat, and skin cells. Many DBPs were new and have not been reported previously in either swimming pool or drinking waters. Bromoform levels were greater in brominated than in chlorinated pool waters, but we also identified many brominated DBPs in the chlorinated waters. The pool waters were mutagenic at levels similar to that of drinking water (~ 1,200 revertants/L-equivalents in strain TA100-S9 mix). Conclusions: This study identified many new DBPs not identified previously in swimming pool or drinking water and found that swimming pool waters are as mutagenic as typical drinking waters.

38 páginas, 2 figuras, 4 tablas.-- PDF con material suplementario., [BACKGROUND]: Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in the water and related that to mutagenicity., [OBJECTIVES]: We performed a comprehensive identification of DBPs and disinfectant species in waters from public swimming pools in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, that disinfect with either chlorine or bromine, and we determined the mutagenicity of the waters to compare to the analytical results., [METHODS]: We used gas chromatography (GC)/mass spectrometry (MS) to measure THMs in water and GC with electron capture detection (ECD) for air, low and high resolution GC/MS to comprehensively identify DBPs, photometry to measure disinfectant species (free chlorine, monochloroamine, dichloramine, and trichloramine) in the waters, and an ion chromatography method to measure trichloramine in air. We assessed mutagenicity in the Salmonella mutagenicity assay., [RESULTS]: We identified more than 100 DBPs, including many nitrogen-containing DBPs that were likely formed from nitrogen-containing precursors from human inputs, such as urine, sweat, and skin cells. Many DBPs were new and have not been reported previously in either swimming pool or drinking waters. Bromoform levels were greater in the brominated vs. chlorinated pool waters, but many brominated DBPs were also identified in the chlorinated waters. The pool waters were mutagenic at levels similar to that of drinking water (~1200 revertants/L-eq in strain TA100 –S9 mix)., [CONCLUSIONS]: This study identified many new DBPs not identified previously in swimming pool or drinking water and found that swimming pool waters are as mutagenic as typical drinking waters., This research was supported by EPA’s intramural research program and the Spanish grants SAF2005-07643-C03-01 (Plan Nacional) and CP06/00341 (Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria). CMV and LFR have, respectively, a contract and a predoctoral fellowship by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CP06/00341, FI06/00651). CL acknowledges a grant from the Agreement between Santander-Central Hispano and CSIC.

The number of ultrafine particles in urban air may be more health relevant than the usually measured mass of particles smaller than 2.5 or 10 μm. Epidemiological studies typically assess exposure by measurements at a central site. Limited information is available about how well measurements at a central site reflect exposure to ultrafine particles. The goals of this paper are to assess the relationships between particle number (PN) and mass concentrations measured outdoors at a central site, right outside and inside the study homes. The study was conducted in four European cities: Amsterdam, Athens, Birmingham and Helsinki. Particle mass (PM10 and PM2.5), PN, soot and sulfate concentrations were measured at these sites. Measurements of indoors and outdoors near the home were made during 1 week in 152, mostly non-smoking, homes. In each city continuous measurements were also performed at a central site during the entire study period. The correlation between 24-h average central site outdoor and indoor concentrations was lower for PN (correlation among cities ranged from 0.18 to 0.45) than for PM2.5 (0.40-0.80), soot (0.64-0.92) and sulfate (0.91-0.99). In Athens, the indoor-central site correlation was similar for PN and PM2.5. Infiltration factors for PN and PM2.5 were lower than for sulfate and soot. Night-time hourly average PN concentrations showed higher correlations between indoor and central site, implying that indoor sources explained part of the low correlation found for 24-h average concentrations. Measurements at a central site may characterize indoor exposure to ambient particles less well for ultrafine particles than for fine particle mass, soot and sulfate. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The associations between residential outdoor and ambient particle mass, fine particle absorbance, particle number (PN) concentrations, and residential and traffic determinants were investigated in four European urban areas (Helsinki, Athens, Amsterdam, and Birmingham). A total of 152 nonsmoking participants with respiratory diseases, not exposed to occupational pollution, were included in the study, which comprised a 7-day intensive exposure monitoring period of both indoor and home outdoor particle mass and number concentrations. The same pollutants were also continuously measured at ambient fixed sites centrally located to the studied areas (fixed ambient sites). Relationships between concentrations measured directly outside the homes (residential outdoor) and at the fixed ambient sites were pollutant-specific, with substantial variations among the urban areas. Differences were more pronounced for coarse particles due to resuspension of road dust and PN, which is strongly related to traffic emissions. Less significant outdoor-to-fixed variation for particle mass was observed for Amsterdam and Birmingham, predominantly due to regional secondary aerosol. On the contrary, a strong spatial variation was observed for Athens and to a lesser extent for Helsinki. This was attributed to the overwhelming and time-varied inputs from traffic and other local sources. The location of the residence and traffic volume and distance to street and traffic light were important determinants of residential outdoor particle concentrations. On average, particle mass levels in suburban areas were less than 30% of those measured for residences located in the city center. Residences located less than 10 m from a street experienced 133% higher PN concentrations than residences located further away. Overall, the findings of this multi-city study, indicated that (1) spatial variation was larger for PN than for fine particulate matter (PM) mass and varied between the cities, (2) vehicular emissions in the residential street and location in the center of the city were significant predictors of spatial variation, and (3) the impact of traffic and location in the city was much larger for PN than for fine particle mass. Copyright 2007 Air & Waste Management Association.

The number of ultrafine particles may be a more health relevant characteristic of ambient particulate matter than the conventionally measured mass. Epidemiological time series studies typically use a central site to characterize human exposure to outdoor air pollution. There is currently very limited information how well measurements at a central site reflect temporal and spatial variation across an urban area for particle number concentrations (PNC). The main objective of the study was to assess the spatial variation of PNC compared to the mass concentration of particles with diameter less than 10 or 2.5 μm (PM10 and PM2.5). Continuous measurements of PM10, PM2.5, PNC and soot concentrations were conducted at a central site during October 2002-March 2004 in four cities spread over Europe (Amsterdam, Athens, Birmingham and Helsinki). The same measurements were conducted directly outside 152 homes spread over the metropolitan areas. Each home was monitored during 1 week. We assessed the temporal correlation and the variability of absolute concentrations. For all particle indices, including particle number, temporal correlation of 24-h average concentrations was high. The median correlation for PNC per city ranged between 0.67 and 0.76. For PM2.5 median correlation ranged between 0.79 and 0.98. The median correlation for hourly average PNC was lower (range 0.56-0.66). Absolute concentration levels varied substantially more within cities for PNC and coarse particles than for PM2.5. Measurements at the central site reflected the temporal variation of 24-h average concentrations for all particle indices at the selected homes across the urban area. A central site could not assess absolute concentrations across the urban areas for particle number. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.