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ObjectiveMucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are the most abundant T cells in human liver. They respond to bacterial metabolites presented by major histocompatibility complex-like molecule MR1. MAIT cells exert regulatory and antimicrobial functions and are implicated in liver fibrogenesis. It is not well understood which liver cells function as antigen (Ag)-presenting cells for MAIT cells, and under which conditions stimulatory Ags reach the circulation.DesignWe used different types of primary human liver cells in Ag-presentation assays to blood-derived and liver-derived MAIT cells. We assessed MAIT cell stimulatory potential of serum from healthy subjects and patients with portal hypertension undergoing transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt stent, and patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).ResultsMAIT cells were dispersed throughout healthy human liver and all tested liver cell types stimulated MAIT cells, hepatocytes being most efficient. MAIT cell activation by liver cells occurred in response to bacterial lysate and pure Ag, and was prevented by non-activating MR1 ligands. Serum derived from peripheral and portal blood, and from patients with IBD stimulated MAIT cells in MR1-dependent manner.ConclusionOur findings reveal previously unrecognised roles of liver cells in Ag metabolism and activation of MAIT cells, repression of which creates an opportunity to design antifibrotic therapies. The presence of MAIT cell stimulatory Ags in serum rationalises the observed activated MAIT cell phenotype in liver. Increased serum levels of gut-derived MAIT cell stimulatory ligands in patients with impaired intestinal barrier function indicate that intrahepatic Ag-presentation may represent an important step in the development of liver disease.

ObjectiveDisruption of the epithelial barrier plays an essential role in developing eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE), a disease defined by type 2 helper T cell (Th2)-mediated food-associated and aeroallergen-associated chronic inflammation. Although an increased expression of interleukin (IL)-20 subfamily members, IL-19, IL-20 and IL-24, in Th2-mediated diseases has been reported, their function in EoE remains unknown.DesignCombining transcriptomic, proteomic and functional analyses, we studied the importance of the IL-20 subfamily for EoE using patient-derived oesophageal three-dimensional models and an EoE mouse model.ResultsPatients with active EoE have increased expression of IL-20 subfamily cytokines in the oesophagus and serum. In patient-derived oesophageal organoids stimulated with IL-20 cytokines, RNA sequencing and mass spectrometry revealed a downregulation of genes and proteins forming the cornified envelope, including filaggrins. On the contrary, abrogation of IL-20 subfamily signalling inIl20R2−/−animals resulted in attenuated experimental EoE reflected by reduced eosinophil infiltration, lower Th2 cytokine expression and preserved expression of filaggrins in the oesophagus. Mechanistically, these observations were mediated by the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK); extracellular-signal regulated kinases (ERK)1/2) pathway. Its blockade prevented epithelial barrier impairment in patient-derived air–liquid interface cultures stimulated with IL-20 cytokines and attenuated experimental EoE in mice.ConclusionOur findings reveal a previously unknown regulatory role of the IL-20 subfamily for oesophageal barrier function in the context of EoE. We propose that aberrant IL-20 subfamily signalling disturbs the oesophageal epithelial barrier integrity and promotes EoE development. Our study suggests that specific targeting of the IL-20 subfamily signalling pathway may present a novel strategy for the treatment of EoE.

SummarySingle nucleotide polymorphisms in the gene encoding G protein-coupled receptor 35 (GPR35) are associated with increased risk of inflammatory bowel disease. However, the mechanism(s) by which GPR35 modulates the intestinal milieu remain undefined. Here we demonstrate in zebrafish and mice that expression ofGpr35is microbiota-dependent and is enhanced upon inflammation. We identify a GPR35+colonic macrophage population in mice that is characterized by increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and determine that lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) acts as an endogenous GPR35 ligand to induceTnfexpression. Mice lackingGpr35in CX3CR1+macrophages have aggravated colitis when exposed to dextran sodium sulfate, have decreased transcript levels of the corticosterone-generating geneCyp11b1, and reduced levels of macrophage-derived TNF. Administration of TNF in these mice restoresCyp11b1expression and intestinal corticosterone production, and ameliorates DSS-induced colitis. These findings suggest that LPA signals through GPR35 in CX3CR1+macrophages to control the intestinal cytokine milieu.HighlightsInflammatory cues and the microbiota modulateGpr35expression across speciesLPA modulates GPR35-dependent functions in zebrafish and mice macrophagesGPR35 expressing macrophages have a protective role during intestinal inflammationGPR35 control intestinal inflammation by inducing TNF and corticosterone synthesiseTOC BlurbGPR35 have been associated with IBD, but how GPR35 may influence macrophage-mediated intestinal homeostasis remains unclear. Using zebrafish and mice genetic tools, Niess, Villablanca, and colleagues have identified that LPA triggers GPR35 activity, and loss of macrophage GPR35 signaling confers intrinsic dysfunctions with effects on cytokine production and intestinal homeostasis.

Comprehensive development is critical for gut macrophages being essential for the intestinal immune system. However, the underlying mechanisms of macrophage development in the colon remain elusive. To investigate the function of branched-chain amino acids in the development of gut macrophages, an inducible knock-out mouse model for the branched-chain amino acid transporter CD98hc in CX3CR1+ macrophages was generated. The relatively selective deletion of CD98hc in macrophage populations leads to attenuated severity of chemically-induced colitis that we assessed by clinical, endoscopic, and histological scoring. Single-cell RNA sequencing of colonic lamina propria macrophages revealed that conditional deletion of CD98hc alters the “monocyte waterfall”-development to MHC II+ macrophages. The change in the macrophage development after deletion of CD98hc is associated with increased apoptotic gene expression. Our results show that CD98hc deletion changes the development of colonic macrophages., CD98hc in macrophages attenuates the severity of colitis. This change in the macrophage development is associated with increased expression of apoptotic genes, suggesting that CD98hc maintains the gut homeostasis by ensuring the development of gut macrophages.

Methyl donor deficiency (MDD) aggravates experimental colitis in rats and decreases SIRT1 activity in cell models. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress plays a key role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) pathogenesis. We investigated whether the influence of MDD on colitis resulted from an ER stress response triggered by decreased SIRT1 expression. The Unfolded protein response (UPR), chaperone proteins, heat-shock factor protein 1 (HSF1) and SIRT1 were examined in rats with MDD and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)- induced colitis, in a Caco-2 cell model with stable expression of transcobalamin-oleosin chimera (TO), which impairs cellular availability of vitamin B12, and in human IBD. The effects of SIRT1 activation were studied both in vitro and in vivo. MDD aggravated DSS-induced colitis clinically, endoscopically and histologically. MDD activated ER stress pathways, with increased p-PERK, p-eiF-2a, p-IRE-1a, ATF6, XBP1-S protein and ATF4 mRNA expression levels in rats. This was accompanied by reduced SIRT1 expression level and greater acetylation of HSF1, in relation with a dramatic decrease of chaperons (BIP, HSP27 and HSP90). Adding either vitamin B12, Sadenosylmethionine, or a SIRT1 activator (SRT1720) reduced the UPR in vitro. In rats, SIRT1 activation by SRT1720 prevented colitis by reducing acetylation of HSF1 and increasing the expression of BIP, HSP27 and HSP90. Immunohistochemistry showed impaired expression of SIRT1 in the colonic epithelium of IBD patients. SIRT1 is a master regulator of ER stress and severity of experimental colitis in case of MDD. It could deserve further interest as a therapeutic target of IBD, Une carence en donneurs de méthyle (CDM) est fréquente dans les maladies inflammatoires chroniques intestinales (MICI) et induit un stress du réticulum endoplasmique (RE). La désacétylase SIRT1 (Sirtuine 1) régule la réponse cellulaire suite à un stress nutritionnel par le biais d’un stress du RE. Nous avons étudié pour la première fois l’impact d’une CDM sur le stress du RE et les effets de l'activation de SIRT1 dans un modèle expérimental de colite chez le rat. Pour restaurer l’homéostasie du réticulum endoplasmique, la cellule met en place la réponse UPR « Unfolded Protein Response ».Les quantités de formes actives des acteurs de l’UPR (effecteurs et régulateurs), ainsi que du facteur de transcription (HSF1) et SIRT1 ont été étudiés par western blot, immunoprécipitation et RT-qPCR sur des tissus coliques (rats et humains) et sur des lysats cellulaires. Les effets de l'activation de SIRT1 ont été étudiés in vitro et in vivo. Une CDM aggrave la colite induite par le DSS cliniquement, endoscopiquement et histologiquement. Une CDM induit un stress du RE en augmentant le niveau d’expression des formes active des acteurs de l’UPR : p-PERK, p-eIF-2a, p-IRE-1a, ATF6, XBP1-S et l’ARNm d’ATF4. Ceci est accompagné d’une diminution dramatique du niveau d’expression des protéines chaperonnes, d’une réduction du niveau d'expression de SIRT1 et d’une hyperacétylation de HSF1. L’ajout de la vitamine B12, de la S-Adénosine Methionine (SAM), ou un activateur de SIRT1 (SRT1720) réduit l'UPR in vitro. L’immunohistochimie a montré une diminution de l’expression de SIRT1 dans l'épithélium du côlon de patients atteints de MICI. Chez le rat, l’activation de SIRT1 prévient la colite en réduisant le niveau acétylé de HSF1 et en augmentant le niveau d’expression des molécules chaperonnes. L'activation de SIRT1 prévient la colite en réduisant le stress du RE causé par la CDM. Ces résultats suggèrent que SIRT1 pourrait être une cible thérapeutique dans les MICI où les CDM sont fréquentes