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Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) is a non-atherosclerotic vascular disease that may involve medium-sized muscular arteries throughout the body. The majority of FMD patients are women. Although a variety of genetic, mechanical, and hormonal factors play a role in the pathogenesis of FMD, overall, its cause remains poorly understood. It is probable that the pathogenesis of FMD is linked to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Extensive studies have correlated the arterial lesions of FMD to histopathological findings of arterial fibrosis, cellular hyperplasia, and distortion of the abnormal architecture of the arterial wall. More recently, the vascular phenotype of lesions associated with FMD has been expanded to include arterial aneurysms, dissections, and tortuosity. However, in the absence of a string-of-beads or focal stenosis, these lesions do not suffice to establish the diagnosis. While FMD most commonly involves renal and cerebrovascular arteries, involvement of most arteries throughout the body has been reported. Increasing evidence highlights that FMD is a systemic arterial disease and that subclinical alterations can be found in non-affected arterial segments. Recent significant progress in FMD-related research has led to improve our understanding of the disease’s clinical manifestations, natural history, epidemiology, and genetics. Ongoing work continues to focus on FMD genetics and proteomics, physiological effects of FMD on cardiovascular structure and function, and novel imaging modalities and blood-based biomarkers that can be used to identify subclinical FMD. It is also hoped that the next decade will bring the development of multi-centred and potentially international clinical trials to provide comparative effectiveness data to inform the optimal management of patients with FMD.

Meester-Loeys syndrome (MRLS) is an X-linked syndromic form of thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection. Here, we report an iPSC line (BBANTWi009-A) of a boy carrying a hemizygous BGN mutation (chrX:153502980-153530518del, GRCh38) causing MRLS. iPSCs were generated from dermal fibroblasts by reprogramming with the Cytotune®-iPS 2.0 Sendai Reprogramming Kit (Invitrogen). The generated iPSCs showed a normal karyotype, expressed pluripotency markers, were differentiated into the three germ layers and carried the original genotype.

Importin 8, encoded by IPO8, is a ubiquitously expressed member of the importin-beta protein family that translocates cargo molecules such as proteins, RNAs, and ribonucleoprotein complexes into the nucleus in a RanGTP-dependent manner. Current knowledge of the cargoes of importin 8 is limited, but TGF-beta signaling components such as SMAD1-4 have been suggested to be among them. Here, we report that bi-allelic loss-of-function variants in IPO8 cause a syndromic form of thoracic aortic aneurysm(TAA) with clinical overlap with Loeys-Dietz and Shprintzen-Goldberg syndromes. Seven individuals from six unrelated families showed a consistent phenotype with early-onset TAA, motor developmental delay, connective tissue findings, and craniofacial dysmorphic features. A C57BL/6N Ipo8 knockout mouse model recapitulates TAA development from 8-12 weeks onward in both sexes but most prominently shows ascending aorta dilatation with a propensity for dissection in males. Compliance assays suggest augmented passive stiffness of the ascending aorta in male Ipo8(-/-) mice throughout life. Immunohistological investigation of mutant aortic walls reveals elastic fiber disorganization and fragmentation along with a signature of increased TGF-beta signaling, as evidenced by nuclear pSmad2 accumulation. RT-qPCR assays of the aortic wall in male Ipo8(-/-) mice demonstrate decreased Smad6/7 and increased Mmp2 and Ccn2 (Ctgf) expression, reinforcing a role for dysregulation of the TGF-beta signaling pathway in TAA development. Because importin 8 is the most downstream TGF-beta-related effector implicated in TAA pathogenesis so far, it offers opportunities for future mechanistic studies and represents a candidate drug target for TAA.

Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is the commonest form of heritable bone fragility. It is mainly characterized by fractures, hearing loss and dentinogenesis imperfecta. OI patients are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease of variable severity. Aortic aneurysm/dissection is one of the rarer but potentially serious cardiovascular complications of OI. So far, only six patients with aortic dissection and OI have been reported. As such, present OI diagnostic guidelines do not recommend systematic screening of patients for aortopathy. Here, we report on the clinical and molecular characteristics of three new OI patients and one additional patient with a first degree relative who presented with aortic dissection and/or aneurysm surgery. This observation further opens up the discussion on the need for and extent of cardiovascular screening in adult patients with OI.

Aortic aneurysm refers to a pathological dilatation of the aorta and predisposes to rupture and dissection. It is an important health problem, accounting for 1–2% of all deaths in the Western population. Thoracic aortic aneurysms (TAAs) have been more extensively studied than their abdominal counterparts because of greater heritability and earlier disease onset. Hitherto, mutations in more than 30 genes have been linked to TAA development. In general, TAA genes code for proteins involved in structural integrity and homeostasis of the extracellular matrix, vascular smooth muscle cell contractility or the TGF-β signalling pathway. Their discovery has led to new therapeutic avenues such as the TGF-β lowering agents, including angiotensin receptor blockers. However, additional research is still necessary to complete the pathomechanistic puzzle. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge of TAA pathology, the molecular TAA landscape and how elucidation of the latter is facilitating gene-tailored TAA management.

Thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection (TAAD) is a major cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Loss-of-function variants in LOX, encoding the extracellular matrix crosslinking enzyme lysyl oxidase, have been reported to cause familial TAAD. Using a next-generation TAAD gene panel, we identified five additional probands carrying LOX variants, including two missense variants affecting highly conserved amino acids in the LOX catalytic domain and three truncating variants. Connective tissue manifestations are apparent in a substantial fraction of the variant carriers. Some LOX variant carriers presented with TAAD early in life, while others had normal aortic diameters at an advanced age. Finally, we identified the first patient with spontaneous coronary artery dissection carrying a LOX variant. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that loss-of-function LOX variants cause a spectrum of aortic and arterial aneurysmal disease, often combined with connective tissue findings.