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The objective of this thesis is to develop a political economy of sport mega events that includes the impact that such events have on the everyday lives of people directly affected by development projects linked to these events. The research questions that assist the realisation of this objective are: 1. What are the links between global capitalism and sport mega events?; 2. In what ways can the knowledge produced on sport mega events contribute to the development of a political economy of the FIFA 2014 World Cup?; and, 3. How do people who are directly affected by sport mega event development projects perceive such events? This thesis is organised into four parts. The first part presents theoretical debates and deals with issues related to global capitalism (chapter 2). This part also presents a relatively independent study in which it is argued that a renewed policy of sport mega events allocation has been developed, and where a first examination of the socioeconomic consequences of the most recent changes regarding the configuration of such a policy is displayed. Chapter 3 provides a discussion on what constitutes a sport mega event. Then, chapter 3 examines how sport mega events are studied, and debates what makes mega events so attractive to so many different social actors. Chapter 4 addresses specific issues related to opposition to sport mega events. In this chapter, the dynamics that surrounded the 2013 Confederations Cup and the 2014 World Cup in relation to the June Journeys, as the massive demonstrations that took over the streets of the country in 2013 are known, are analysed. The second part of the thesis explains the ontological and epistemological premises and the foundational aspects of the study (sub-chapter 5.1). The ontological and epistemological framework employed throughout the study is based on historical and dialectical materialism. Part II also presents the research objective and the research questions (sub-chapter 5.2). Chapter 5 then develops to discuss and explain the methodological issues of the thesis. The research methodologies and techniques used in the development of the research were literature review, document analysis, interviews and survey. The third part of the thesis is composed of one chapter, results and discussion (chapter 6). In that part of the thesis the results of the survey conducted with residents of areas affected by the 2014 World Cup in Porto Alegre are presented and discussed with the support of aspects presented in part I of the thesis and collated with elements produced from the document analysis and the interviews. The fourth part of the thesis displays the conclusions (chapter 7). To associate aspects from the different spheres of the research in the construction of a political economy of sport mega events and the 2014 World Cup, the chapter initially reaffirms the importance of the ontological and epistemological positions upon which the advancement of the thesis is based (sub-chapter 7.1). Next, the discussions made from the literature review (chapters 3 and 4) on the topic of sport mega events (sub-chapter 7.2) are addressed. Then (sub-chapter 7.3), considerations made in chapter 2 of the thesis, specifically looking at the links between global capitalism and sport mega events are engaged. Subsequently are presented the concluding analysis on the perceptions of residents of areas impacted by works of the 2014 World Cup in the city of Porto Alegre (sub-chapter 7.4). The chapter then exhibits the recommendations of the thesis (sub-chapter 7.5). Finally, the chapter displays the limitations of the research and implications for future research (sub-chapter 7.6). This sub-chapter is sub-divided in order to discuss the limitations of the research (section 7.6.1) and the implications for future research (section 7.6.2).

This study evaluated the extent to which changes in UK sport policy have impacted on three selected small to mid-sized national governing bodies (SMNGBs) of Olympic sports in England, considered to be competitive-community-grassroots sports rather than elite (by virtue of their loss of elite funding), and the strategies utilised by them to adapt to changing policy and operational environments, to determine their position as primarily 'policy shapers' or 'policy takers.' The analysis was informed by the advocacy coalition framework (ACF). The extent to which sport policy has impacted on SMNGBs, the strategies used to adapt to changes in policy, the changing nature of their relationship with government and governmental agencies, and their role in sport policy, have seldom been addressed directly in academic literature. While community sport policy has received some interest from scholars, there has been far less analysis on the significance of SMNGBs at the community level. The research adopted a qualitative approach within a multiple case-study design. The cases selected were England Handball, Volleyball England, and Table Tennis England. Primary data collection methods were document analysis and semi-structured interviews with key actors. A thematic analysis of the data revealed a sport policy subsystem constructed or substantially shaped by government and agency-led coalitions, engineered on the basis of shared-beliefs (which are partly common to SMNGBs and Sport England [SE] and partly imposed by SE), and a culture of contract-compliance, shared-interests, financial inducements/sanctions and organisational interdependencies, to deliver on the shifting priorities of government's pro-social agenda. The research identified SMNGBs as primarily 'policy takers', based on: i) a largely unopposed acceptance of policy change by SMNGBs; ii) a willingness to adapt to change and comply with contractual obligations; and iii) the utilisation of various opportunistic and pragmatic strategies to align with the 'core beliefs' of government and SE, achieve policy outcomes, and maintain membership of the SE-led coalition. The impact of which has significantly shaped SMNGBs, both organisationally and operationally, heightened levels of resource-dependency and tensions within SMNGBs, predominantly attributable to a compliance versus autonomy dichotomy, and exposed their weakness and vulnerability to policy change, as well as a lack of understanding of the policy environment. Application of the ACF illuminated a number of key points relevant to the fundamental assumptions of the framework, particularly in relation to the formation, composition, and boundaries of advocacy coalitions and policy subsystems, the ACF's hierarchical belief system, and the ACF's capacity to explain both policy change and stability, which contribute to debates on the utility of the ACF as an analytical framework. The evaluation of the ACF highlighted its usefulness as an analytical framework, but also potential weaknesses, particularly in regard to the limited insight given to government-constructed agency-led coalitions.

Olympic coaches are recognized as performers in their own right. They influence athletes' performance, learning, and development, devote considerable time to training and competition schedules, select and manage support staff, and perform under scrupulous attention from the public, media, and National Governing Bodies. This thesis aimed to enhance our understanding of the psychosocial aspects of coaching in Olympic sport, and represents the first investigation of the psychosocial factors which discriminate between world-leading and world-class swimming coaches. Study One comprised a systematic review of the existing literature related to psychosocial aspects of coaching in Olympic sport. Twenty-five studies which included 207 Olympic coaches and 925 Olympic athletes were identified, and a convergent thematic analysis highlighted coach traits, states, and behaviors which were related to athlete performance in a perceived facilitative, debilitative, or neutral, mixed, or unclear manner. Whilst this synthesis provides a valuable amalgamation of existing information, it also highlighted significant limitations. In particular, much of the research was atheoretical, there was limited empirical progression, there a predominant focus on coaches' bright characteristics, and there was little use of multi-variate and comparative designs. The existing literature has treated Olympic coaches as a homogenous group, and has not yet explored the factors which may discriminate between coaches who are more and less successful. In order to examine these potentially discriminating factors, 38 Olympic swimming coaches and 38 Olympic swimmers participated in four empirical studies across this thesis. The included coaches had collectively coached swimmers to win a total of 354 Olympic medals, of which 156 were Olympic gold medals. Study Two quantitatively examined the psychosocial characteristics which discriminated between world-leading (i.e. Olympic gold medal winning) and world-class (i.e. Olympic non-gold medal winning) swimming coaches. Psychometrically validated self-report questionnaires were used which covered the Big Five personality traits, emotional intelligence, hardiness, and the dark triad, and a series of oneway multivariate analysis of variances (MANOVAs) with follow-up univariate F-tests were employed to analyze the results and identify any significant differences between the two groups. The results showed that the world-leading coaches perceived themselves as significantly more agreeable, with a greater perception of emotion and ability to manage their own emotion, and were less Machiavellian and narcissistic in comparison with the world-class coaches. Study Three aimed to quantitatively examine whether Olympic swimmers perceived any discriminating psychosocial characteristics between world-leading and world-class coaches. The study employed the corresponding observer-report psychometric questionnaires which covered the Big Five personality traits, emotional intelligence, hardiness, and the dark triad, and used a series of oneway MANOVAs with follow-up univariate F-tests to detect differences between the two groups. The findings demonstrated that the swimmers perceived that the world-leading coaches were more conscientious, higher on openness to experience, better at perceiving emotion and managing other emotion, and less narcissistic in comparison with the world-class coaches. Study Four used a qualitative design to explore world-leading and world-class coaches' perceptions of psychosocial factors which potentially discriminate between the two groups, and this added important nuances to the previous quantitative studies and developed a more rounded appreciation of these coaches. Semi-structured interviews were conducted which covered their perceived motivation, behavior, communication, environment, relationships, luck, overcoming difficulties, and coping with pressure, and thematic analysis was used to analyze the findings. The results highlighted discriminating factors between the two groups within the themes of motivation (i.e. childhood adversity, the need to win and not to lose, striving for perfection, and obsession), underpinning personal bonds (i.e. deep caring, belief in your own abilities, attention to swimmer emotion, expression of appropriate emotion, and building mutual trust), their improvement orientation (i.e. utilization of sport science, innovation, provision of feedback, adaptability, and culture of excellence), and Olympic event management (i.e. knowledge and detailed preparation, and providing emotional stability). Finally, Study Five qualitatively explored swimmers' perceptions of world-leading and world-class coaches. Using semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis, the results demonstrated that the swimmers perceived discriminating factors across the themes of coach personal qualities (i.e. inspirational motivator, focus on winning and avoiding losing, self-assurance, holistic care, and trustworthiness), their creation of a stimulating environment (i.e. novelty, management of own and other emotions, consistency of engagement, focus of feedback, and training culture), and the management of emotions at the Olympic Games (i.e. management of own emotional expression, and management of swimmers' psychological state). The overarching applied implications of this thesis are that the factors which discriminate between these two groups of coaches are likely to be advantageous for coaching a swimmer to win an Olympic gold medal, and that they can be used to inform coach development programs.

This study explores the social domain and the applicability of socio-educational content across Physical Education (PE) contexts. PE has been argued to contribute positively to young people's personal, social and moral development. Moreover, the subject has been projected as a vehicle for bringing across value-laden education and social skills. This research project seeks to add to the existing literature in this area by exploring how physical education teachers in Malta understand socio-educational aspects in PE. It examines the impact of one programme designed to promote social learning through physical activity, the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility model (TPSR; Hellison, 1995), by looking into the implementation outcomes of this programme when employed by Maltese PE teachers. Underpinned by an interpretivist framework, this qualitative study was inspired by empirical evidence garnered from my own teaching and coaching experiences. In particular, it was driven by a recognition that the focus on physicality in PE contexts often outweighs the educational potential embedded in the socio-affective domains as well as the contradiction between the celebrated social learning in current Maltese educational policy (The National Curriculum Framework) and what takes place in practice. Given this background, the first phase of the study explores the physical educators' knowledge, perceptions and position of the social domain within early secondary PE practices in the Maltese context. In the second phase of the study, a selected group of teachers (N=6), were trained in TPSR (as a value-laden model), which they later implemented over one academic year with students in their first year of secondary education. This, unpredictably, initiated an evolving community of practice (COP) which became embedded and instrumental in the outcomes of this research journey. The coding processes, driven by a Grounded Theory approach, led to the emergent multi-relational core categories. The captured experiences contribute to a deeper understanding of socio-educational aspects across PE as well as the pedagogical attributes of TPSR implemented across a traditionally-oriented PE context. This study contributes to the the very few studies reporting on school-based TPSR implementation. It also captures the participant teachers' perceptions and reflections across the implementation of TPSR, as an innovative model in Maltese PE contexts, and thus brings forward an original contribution to knowledge by focusing on the process of teacher implementation rather than the outcomes. Findings across this study project the abstractness, differentiated understanding and application of the social domain in PE, together with the environments this is presented in, as powerful contributors to the de-valuing of socio-educational content. The lived experiences across TPSR implementation embedded within a COP, and the reflective practice enjoyed by the teacher-participants, supported a methodology ideologised by the Maltese NCF (2012). This experience facilitated a pedagogy of emergence and teachable moments and is proposed as a process through which socio-educational content could be brought across in meaningful ways. This thesis, framed within a constructivist approach, provides insights on the essential multi-relational aspects of education, which, together with an emergent community of practice (COP), are proposed as key contributors to meaningful education.

Exercise intensity can be measured using objective markers, such as oxygen uptake (V̇O2), heart rate (HR) and power output (PO), and with subjective markers such as Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE). During traditional exercise testing and prescription settings, intensity is typically regulated using objective markers. However, in both examples, RPE offers an enticing option as an alternative method. For exercise testing this comes through the use of a maximal perceptually-regulated exercise test (PRETmax), and in exercise prescription through utilising RPE-guided training. Though, despite the potential advantages of the PRETmax and RPE-guided training, little evidence exists as to the application of these methods during upper body exercise (UBE). For able-bodied (AB) individuals, UBE provides an alternative to more common lower body forms of exercise, whilst for individuals with a disability affecting the lower limbs, UBE is the predominant form of both daily mobility and exercise. Therefore, in order to inform practice surrounding UBE testing and prescription, it is essential to understand more about the application of RPE.

This thesis sought to explore and examine the multitude of dual career experiences in sport, (i.e., the experience of combining a sporting career with an educational or vocational career). The research focus upon dual careers in sport derived from several research approaches within sport psychology including: the transitions literature (e.g., Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004; Wylleman, Reints, & De Knop, 2013), the holistic athlete perspective literature (e.g., Henriksen, Stambulova, & Roessler, 2010; Wylleman et al., 2013), and the athletic retirement literature (see Knights, Sherry, & Ruddock-Hudson, 2016). The research approaches highlighted the importance of considering an athlete's life outside of sport and/or their preparation for life after sport. This led to an increased interest in the ability of athletes to pursue an education or vocation alongside their sporting endeavours and the impact these activities have on factors such as, sporting performance, academic performance, well-being and ability to cope with transition and/or adversity. One aim of this thesis was to provide a fundamental contribution to the research field by comprehensively reviewing and synthesising the evidence which addresses the factors that facilitate positive experiences of managing a sporting career alongside an education or vocation. The results outline factors that have been identified as impacting the experience of a dual career, such as: the academic environment, sporting environment, personal resources, and social support. The thesis was then guided by the gaps in the research knowledge that were highlighted by the review. One area that was identified to be of interest for further research was the spectrum of dual career experiences that are presented in the literature and the lack of theoretical conceptualization which explain the development of these different experiences. For example, on the one hand, previous research identified a variety of positive experiences from pursuing a dual career (e.g., Aquilina, 2013; Lavallee & Robinson, 2007; Miller & Kerr, 2002; Murphy, Petitpas, & Brewer, 1996; Pink, Saunders, & Stynes, 2015). However, the negative experiences of pursuing two career goals have also been extensively reported (e.g., Cosh & Tully, 2014; Knight, Harwood, & Sellars, 2018; Singer, 2008; Ryan, 2015; Ryba, Stambulova, Ronkainen, Bundgaard, & Selänne, 2015; Tekavc, Wylleman, & Cecić Erpič, 2015). The thesis then employs a method that has, thus far, not been used in this research area and further explores these contrasting experiences via a grounded theory analysis (chapter 4) which integrates inductive interview data with previous research (e.g., Aunola, Selänne, Selänne, & Ryba, 2018; Chamorro, Torregrosa, Sánchez Oliva, García Calvo, & León, 2016; Ryba, Stambulova, Selänne, Aunola, & Nurmi, 2017; Stambulova, Engström, Franck, Linnér, & Lindahl, 2015). The findings present experiences of dual careers as categorised into one of three pathways: the parallel dual career pathway, the sporting pathway and, the educational/vocational pathway. All three pathways exhibit varying outcomes, benefits, and detriments, which are outlined as: the educational gap, vocational skills gap, and the sporting gap. This chapter also outlines a suggested process for the development of these pathways, dual career development mechanism, which incorporates identity, motivation, and self-efficacy. The research contributes to the understanding of dual career athletes as a heterogenous group, as opposed to a homogeneous group. However, this research advances the current understanding by viewing the experiences from a developmental standpoint and presenting a theory of the whole dual career lifespan. The findings presented in the grounded theory development led to the hypothesis that individuals in each pathway would exhibit different patterns of athletic identity, career identity, and self-efficacy. For example, (a) individuals in the parallel dual career pathway are hypothesised to exhibit a balanced career identity, career self-efficacy, athletic identity, and athletic self-efficacy' (b) individuals in the sporting pathway are predicted to show a higher athletic identity and athletic self-efficacy than a career identity and career self-efficacy; and (c) individuals in the educational/vocational pathway are predicted to show a higher career identity and career self-efficacy than athletic identity and athletic self-efficacy. The categorisation of dual career individuals and the suggested relationship between sporting development and career development according to the pathways presented in chapter 4 are then further explored and supported via the results of a principle component analysis and cluster analysis (chapter 5). The results upheld the hypothesis by identifying three heterogeneous groups based on their scores on identity and self-efficacy measures. The inclusion of retired dual career athletes provided us with two further groups identified as representing individuals who were further along the three pathways. Previous research has conducted similar methods with elite youth or school-aged athletes (e.g., Aunola et al., 2018; Chamorro et al., 2016) but focused on measure of motivation to categorise individuals. This research, therefore, makes a novel contribution through, confirming the hypothesis of athletic identity, student identity, and self-esteem as factors that impact dual career experiences. These findings conclude that dual career support systems and practitioners must consider the type of dual career pathway which best suits the individual in question and take steps to prepare the individual for the associated gaps of each pathway.

Despite global support for the role of physical education in health promotion, if we judge the subject against this goal alone, the profession has failed. Whilst multiple goals of the subject are acknowledged, this study positioned valuing a physically active life as the priority. However, physical education is characterised by multi-activity, technique-focused, sport-based curricula. Furthermore, when teachers modify their practice with specific health goals in mind, this often takes a fitness for sport and performance focus, despite a vision of promoting healthy, active lifestyles. This study builds on the groundwork of Haerens et al. (2011) who advocated for and initiated the first steps towards the development of a pedagogical model for Health-Based Physical Education. It aimed to develop a comprehensive evidence-informed pedagogical model, and to support teachers in the design, implementation and evaluation of the first school-based programmes using this model. Taking an eight-stage process to the pedagogical model development, this research drew on practitioner research, and most specifically, participatory action research, as its predominant methodology. Multiple and predominantly qualitative methods drew on Brookfield s (1995) four lenses: self-reflection, the experiences of teachers and students and the theoretical literature. Study participants were nine specialist physical education teachers and 263 students (161 male, 102 female, aged 11-14 years) from two diverse schools in the east of England. The findings present the types of programmes designed and implemented after teachers introduction to a theoretically-informed conceptual framework for Health-Based Physical Education. The impact of the programmes on students is considered against the four main goals of the model the development of habitual, motivated, informed and critical movers. The pedagogical model provides a comprehensive evidence-informed framework to support teachers to effectively promote positive physical activity behaviours in young people. It aims to support young people to be habitual, motivated, informed and critical movers. This model offers a new opportunity for physical education as there is currently no pedagogical model which forefronts valuing a physically active life as its primary goal.

It is well established that inflammation is associated with many non-communicable diseases and that when there is a failure in the resolution process acute inflammation becomes chronic with many undesired consequences. Treatment of chronic inflammation with pharmacological anti-inflammatory drugs can have detrimental effects on the body and can lead to an immunocompromised state. It is therefore prudent to consider whether other interventions can combat chronic inflammation. It is possible that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (-3 PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), high levels of which are found in fatty fish, can influence the inflammatory process in a beneficial way and promote the resolution of inflammation thus facilitating a return to homeostasis. The mechanisms through which this might be achieved are not fully understood but the answer may lie within the epigenetic changes that are provoked by the presence of the fatty acids in the diet. Epigenetics is a rapidly developing field of study which investigates heritable chemical modifications to the genome which are independent of the DNA sequence. These chemical changes are vital for normal cellular development, cellular processes, and cell-specific gene expression profiles; and if -3 PUFAs (EPA and DHA) could influence them, they could provide a target for therapeutic interventions. Research to date has demonstrated that -3 PUFA (EPA and DHA) supplementation is associated with changes to markers of inflammation and changes in gene expression. Few studies have researched the effect of dietary -3 PUFA (EPA and DHA) supplementation on the epigenome and none have focused specifically on the inflammatory pathways associated with chronic inflammation in adult humans. The doctoral research reported in this thesis aims to elucidate the interaction between dietary fatty acids and the epigenome particularly as regards inflammation and its resolution. Focusing on one epigenetic marker, DNA methylation, this work has employed a hypothesis driven targeted approach with candidate genes selected after a review of relevant literature. Custom designed pyrosequencing assays were developed to facilitate the measurement of DNA methylation at specific cytosine bases in identified biologically relevant stretches of DNA. We performed a cross sectional study to investigate the relationship between methylation levels of the gene which encodes tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), and levels of fatty acids within the blood. It was found that many of the fatty acids included in the study were not correlated with methylation levels of TNF but some significant correlations were discovered. By analysing the results by sex it was also discovered that some correlations are sex-specific. Specifically, for the males within the study, significant correlations were observed between TNF methylation and -3 PUFA DHA, as well as -6 PUFA arachidonic acid (AA). The relationship between blood fatty acid levels and DNA methylation of cytokine genes was further investigated using a four-week ω-3 PUFA (EPA and DHA) supplementation intervention. The genes included in this study were TNF, interleukin 6 (IL6) and interleukin 1 beta (IL1B). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from blood samples before and after supplementation and these were analysed for fatty acid levels in the cell membranes in order to explore the timeframe over which incorporation occurred. Despite seeing an increase in -3 PUFAs EPA and DHA in PBMCs, there were no changes in methylation of the candidate genes over the intervention period and therefore postulated that this might be because an inflammatory stimulus was absent in this cohort of healthy males. In the final study of this thesis methylation of candidate genes at biologically relevant sites cytokines and RNA expression were measured before and after an inflammatory stimuli, and either side of fatty acid supplementation. In this randomised double blind, repeated measures supplementation study the inflammation stimulus was provided by eccentric exercise and one group was supplemented with ω-3 PUFA (EPA and DHA) and the other with olive oil. Baseline measurements, made before the inflammatory stimulus or supplementation, showed that methylation levels of TNF were negatively associated with the expression of TNF mRNA, however there was no association with TNFα cytokine levels. There was a negative relationship between TNF and IL1B methylation levels at baseline. The inflammatory stimulus induced a decrease in TNF and IL6 methylation levels and an increase of serum cytokines coded by these genes. In contrast, an increase in methylation in the measured region of IL1B was observed. The results clearly demonstrated the effect of a repeated bout of exercise in which decreased inflammation (cytokines and muscle damage markers) is observed after the second bout. There was no difference in the decrease as a consequence of the dietary supplementation. In conclusion it was found that as a result of the cross-sectional study, that some but not all fatty acids in the blood affect the methylation levels of certain CpG sites in exon1 of TNF. Positive and negative associations were observed, with many of the associations being sex specific. In the second study it was established that a four-week period of dietary -3 PUFA (EPA and DHA) supplementation does not significantly change the methylation levels of TNF, IL6 or IL1B and, in the final study, muscle damage was induced through eccentric exercise and this effected a transient epigenetic change, but that fatty acid supplementation had no significant effect over the period of the study. Although DNA methylation of TNF, IL6 and IL1B at the sites studied is not altered by a change in blood fatty acids over a short period this may not be the case over longer periods of intervention and this, together with exploration of the interaction with other environmental factors, such as muscle induced inflammatory stimulus, present opportunities for future research.

This thesis aimed to report the development of evidence-based studies that would assess current physical activity and function, health related quality of life and association with kidney function to encourage and facilitate sustained physical activity habits amongst patients with non-dialysis chronic kidney disease (CKD) and their health care professionals. Therefore, the following studies were conducted: A cross-sectional study of associations of kidney function with self-reported physical activity, physical function, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL): We demonstrated low distribution of Health Enhancing Physically Active (HEPA) (26%) amongst 70 patients with stages 1-5 CKD, with associations between kidney function vs physical activity and physical function after adjusting for confounding variables, but not with HRQoL. A cross-sectional study of self-reported physical activity, physical function, HRQoL, readiness and confidence to increase physical activity: This multi-centre study amongst 377 patients with stages 3-5 CKD indicated a low distribution of active patients (5%) and low levels of confidence and readiness to increase activity. Regression models suggested physical activity, physical function, and physical health are independent positive predictors of readiness and confidence to increase physical activity. An observational study of associations of physical activity, diet, inflammatory markers, and kidney function in non-diabetic hyperglycaemic adults with early stage CKD: This study assessed baseline and 12 months follow up data of 159 adults at high risk of T2DM in stage 2 CKD recruited to a lifestyle structured education programme. With regression models, there were no associations between kidney function and objective measures of physical activity, dietary fats and fibre and Creactive protein. A cross-sectional study of physical activity as a therapeutic option for patients living with CKD in Nigeria: The Renal Multidisciplinary Team Perspective: This survey-based study of 281 renal health care professionals in Nigeria indicated a high prevalence of insufficient physical activity (74%). There were positive opinions and attitudes about implementing physical activity in the care of patients, but with a low distribution of those that implement it (11%). The reported barriers that could have accounted for this inadequacy were lack of motivated patients due to ill health and lack of awareness (75%), lack of resources (69%) and funds (66%), and lack of motivated staff (63%). Conclusion: The studies reported in this thesis demonstrated associations between kidney function, physical activity, physical function and health-related quality of life. It further demonstrated low levels of physical activity and low levels of confidence and readiness to increase physical activity. Furthermore, both patients and health care professionals had positive attitudes towards the benefits of physical activity, but implementation rates were low. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore effective methods to promote and facilitate physical activity amongst patients with stages 1-5 non-dialysis CKD and their health care professionals.

This thesis takes as its starting point what has been described as 'one of the worst statistics in British Sport': that independently educated athletes (those educated in UK fee-paying schools) were significantly over-represented in Team GB at the 2012 Olympics. Beginning by demonstrating the heterogeneity of the independent sector, it seeks an empirically based, sociological understanding of how and why a small number of schools consistently see their pupils compete at senior international level. The central contention being that sporting success cannot be reduced solely to social class. Drawing on literature from the sociologies of Physical Education (PE), sport and education, the thesis interrogates the assumption that privilege leads to sporting advantage for pupils across the independent sector. Methodologically, a critical, appreciative approach is taken. In a multiple-case study, six independent schools(given the pseudonyms Lyttelton, Cambourne, Northcote, Liffield, Greghamand Colbeck) provided a purposive, opportunistic and stratified sample which facilitated comparison between three highly successful, one moderately and two less successful schools, in terms of developing young athletes. Semi-structured interviews with key staff and pupils involved in international representative sport provided data pertaining to the support and development of young athletes. The subsequent analysis illuminates the field of PE and sport in independent schools and, for the first time, reveals how these schools, through a range of intra and inter institutional practices, support the development of young athletes. In seeking a better sociological understanding of PE and sport in independent schools, this thesis employs a dual theory approach based on aspects of the work of Elias and Bourdieu and provides a sustained analysis of why some independent schools consistently develop successful athletes. In concluding, it argues that 'one of the worst statistics in British sport' reflects an ongoing process in which the distinctive function of sport serves a purpose in status rivalries both within the independent sector and the wider figuration. Whilst implicated in the reproduction of social and economic advantage in the UK, a more nuanced view exists in which a small number of independent schools are choosing to do something different and do so particularly successfully. Nevertheless, sport is not a fair and level playing field in which merit always rises above privilege - class still matters here. Furthermore, in updating Bourdieu's notion of 'distinction' within this context, and describing the privileging of sport over PE, it makes an original, empirical contribution to knowledge.

This thesis explored the role of motivational processes in improved human functioning. There is a large body of evidence supporting the idea that higher quality motivation can have important implications for health and well-being via improved behavioural engagement. However, what is less well understood is whether there is a direct effect of motivation on physiological health beyond that which is explained by engagement with the activity itself. The aim of this thesis was to explore associations between motivational processes and biological markers implicated with improved physical health and human functioning. The programme of research began by systematically reviewing multidimensional theories of motivation and physiological responses associated with activation of the endocrine system. Across several conceptually similar theories of motivation, it was evidenced that higher quality motivation was associated with an attenuated cortisol response in a variety of environments eliciting social-evaluative threat. Furthermore, the needs for power and affiliation were associated with lower and higher levels of salivary secretory immunoglobulin A, respectively. Based on the limitations identified in the systematic review, two subsequent chapters further explored the role of high quality motivation in reducing the cortisol response. Using an experimental design grounded in self-determination theory, Chapter Three explored the effect that manipulating autonomous and controlled motivation had on participants' cortisol responses, while concurrently measuring self-control exertion. A repeated measures ANCOVA revealed a significant quadratic interaction (F (1, 32) = 5.40, p =.027, ηp2 = .14). Participants in the controlled regulation condition experienced an increased, with autonomy supportive experiencing a decreased, cortisol response. There was also evidence of motivational effects on self-control performance, although the results contradicted the hypothesis. A mixed ANCOVA revealed participants in the controlled regulation condition recorded greater wall sit performance in the first and second wall sits compared with the autonomy-supportive condition (F (1,36) = 4.40, p = .043, ηp2 = .11). This concept was replicated and extended in Chapter Four. Although the cortisol pattern was not replicated, nonetheless a repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant linear within subject contrast (F (2, 57) = 4.45, p = .016, ηp2 = .14), with a significant linear decline in cortisol observed in the control condition. Furthermore, there was support for the idea of high-quality motivation improving self-control performance. A one-way ANOVA revealed a self-control performance difference between experimental conditions (F (67,2) = 2.88, p = .063, ηp2 = .08), that was driven by autonomy-supportive participants outperforming those exposed to controlled regulation (p = .055). As predicted, this performance difference did not persist to the second self-control task, the plank (F (64,4) = 0.41, p = .664, ηp2 = .03). In the final empirical chapter, the focus shifted from proximal to stable long-term markers of health by exploring a novel area for self-determination theory - epigenetics - specifically, the DNA methylation of the TNF gene associated with expression of the proinflammatory cytokine TNFα. The results further supported the idea that high quality motivation is most important for health-related behaviour and outcomes. Health-related autonomous motivation was weakly but positively associated with TNF methylation (β =.18, p =.08); however, health-related introjected regulation was not associated with TNF methylation (β =.13, p =.23). In a subsequent step, path analysis was used to explore whether this relationship persisted when accounting for healthy behaviour, however direct effects of autonomous motivation on TNF methylation did not persist when these indirect effects were included (β =.09, p =.43). Overall, this thesis found support for the value of high-quality motivational processes at the epigenetic and endocrine level. Autonomous motivation was indirectly associated with DNA methylation of TNF, via engagement in healthy behaviour. Furthermore, there were several examples of evidence suggesting that high-quality motivation was associated with attenuated cortisol profiles, and conversely, lower quality motivation was associated with an increased cortisol response. There was also evidence that autonomous motivation was implicated in improved self-control performance, but this was not consistently observed. By extending research into epigenetics and endocrinology, this thesis supports the idea that high-quality motivation has important implications for improved health and well-being.

This study explored the use of a collaborative and sustained programme of continuing professional development (CPD) to support the adoption of a new pedagogical model within secondary school physical education. Specifically, the research examined the developmental journey of presenting a new conceptual Health-Based Physical Education (HBPE) pedagogical model to teachers and supporting them to implement it in practice. The aim of the research was to examine teachers' experiences during the HBPE-CPD programme and the subsequent impact on their practice. Participants were nine physical educators from two secondary schools in England who worked with the programme for one year. The HBPE-CPD programme involved school-based meetings, reflective activities and on-going support during the model's implementation. Participatory action research was employed as the methodology and the data gathering methods used included teacher reflections, interviews, lesson observations and field notes. Analysis followed an inductive, iterative process involving constant comparison between the different data sources to generate and subsequently code themes. The creation of sustained CPD programmes, with teachers and researchers working collaboratively, encouraged the adoption of the HBPE pedagogical model over time, although competing organisational pressures presented some challenges. Whilst the teachers demonstrated mixed success with their adoption of the HBPE model, there was a sustained shift away from a 'fitness for performance' philosophy with greater emphasis placed on explicitly promoting out-of-class physical activity for all students. These findings illustrate that collaborative and sustained CPD programmes involving external support can support teachers to adopt new ideas and change their practice over time. They also suggest the HBPE model has real promise, particularly in guiding teachers to promote healthy active lifestyles with their students. It is recommended that the model is further refined and new forms of CPD are developed to support teachers' sustained adoption of pedagogical models, such as HBPE. However, a concerted effort needs to be made by all stakeholders in education to ensure that teachers have sufficient time allocated for CPD and are encouraged to engage in pedagogical change.

As obesity rates continue to rise worldwide, scientific interest in the area of appetite regulation has increased in an attempt to identify strategies that can prevent energy overconsumption and body weight gain. Appetite regulation is complex and involves many different physiological and psychological factors, allowing for great interindividual variability. Recently, some studies assessing appetite and energy intake responses to meal or exercise interventions have shifted the focus on presenting findings exclusively as group means to assessing individual responses and exploring interindividual variability. However, important methodological limitations may have impaired the detection of true interindividual variability, and gold standard study design and statistical approaches that address these limitations have been recently suggested. Therefore, this thesis aimed to assess the reproducibility and quantify the interindividual variability in appetite responses to acute exercise and to a standardised meal, and to explore the influence of genetic, physiological and behavioural characteristics on fasting and postprandial appetite-related outcomes. To achieve this, a total of 145 healthy men and women were recruited into four experimental studies. The first experimental study (Chapter 4) demonstrated, using a replicated crossover design, that young men exhibited reproducible appetite responses after 60-min of fasted treadmill running at 70% peak oxygen uptake. True interindividual variability was observed in acylated ghrelin, total peptide YY (PYY) and perceived appetite responses over and above any random within-subject variability and measurement error, even after adjustment for individual baseline measurements. In the second experimental study (Chapter 5), the fat mass and obesity- associated gene (FTO) was not significantly associated with fasting or postprandial perceived appetite, acylated ghrelin, total PYY, insulin, glucose and leptin in healthy men and women, with or without the addition of physiological and behavioural covariates in the statistical models. While fasting leptin, glucose and insulin and postprandial insulin concentrations were associated with adiposity outcomes, the associations between fasting and postprandial acylated ghrelin, total PYY and general or abdominal adiposity were small. The third experimental study (Chapter 6) employed a replicated crossover design to demonstrate that the reproducibility of appetite responses to a standardised meal (5025 kJ) is generally good in healthy men. True interindividual variability was present in perceived appetite, acylated ghrelin, total PYY, insulin and glucose responses to the meal beyond any random within- i subject variation over time, but the magnitude of change in postprandial appetite responses was not influenced by the FTO gene. The final experimental study (Chapter 7) consisted of a pilot study which showed no significant association between brown adipose tissue activity assessed with thermal imaging, FTO genotype and fasting and postprandial acylated ghrelin, total PYY, insulin and glucose in healthy males. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that appetite responses to acute exercise and to eating are reproducible in healthy men, and true interindividual variability exist in these responses. However, the FTO genotype was not significantly associated with fasting and postprandial perceived appetite and appetite-related hormones, and further studies are warranted to investigate other individual characteristics that may moderate the observed interindividual variability. These findings highlight the importance of exploring individual differences in appetite responses in the context of the prevention and/or management of obesity.

Internationally, children spend most of their waking hours sedentary. Growing evidence indicates that sedentary behaviour tracks and continually increases from childhood through to adulthood. This is of public health concern because in adulthood excessive sedentary time is clearly associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Consequently, early intervention is essential before sedentary habits become entrenched and years of potentially harmful exposure are endured. Standing desks within the school classroom have emerged as one of the most promising strategies for reducing total sedentary time in children. This thesis focuses on sedentary behaviour in children and the implementation of standing desks in the school environment and the influence of standing desks on reducing sedentary time. Chapter 2 describes a systematic review of the impact of standing desks within the school classroom. Systematic reviews are an essential component of evidence-based practice and provided vital information and direction for the research described in later chapters. The systematic review demonstrated that standing desk interventions implemented within the school classroom is a rapidly emerging area of research. There were promising early findings from pilot studies on important outcomes related to health, feasibility and development. However, more long-term studies and studies specifically measuring sitting behaviour as an outcome are needed. Chapter 3 outlines and critically evaluates the methods and data reduction decisions made for both the activPAL and ActiGraph measurement devices relating to the research reported in Chapters 4 and 5. Many decisions made for data reduction procedures were standard practice and recommended within sedentary behaviour and physical activity research. However, with small initial samples in Chapters 4 and 5, there was a conflict between retaining as much of these samples as possible while also gaining the most valid and representative data of behaviour. Data compliance was modest in Chapter 4 and somewhat poor within intervention groups in Chapter 5, which is a limitation of the evidence presented within these chapters. Chapter 4 describes a cross-sectional surveillance study that was designed to fill gaps in the literature about children's objectively-measured levels and patterns of sedentary time and physical activity accumulation, and to gain a greater insight into times of the day and week where interventions could be best targeted. Children in Year 5 of primary 5 school and of South Asian and White British ethnicity of lower socio-economic position were the population of interest. The results demonstrated that children were highly sedentary during different periods of the week; over 10 hours/day on school days and 11 hours/day on weekend days was spent sitting. This also included high proportions of waking hours spent in prolonged sitting bouts (30+ mins), particularly after school and on weekends, which has not been observed in European children previously. To inform interventions, further longitudinal research is required, with larger sample sizes spread across multiple UK areas, to better understand the levels and patterns of sitting accumulated at and away from school in children. Chapters 5 describe the impact of the Stand Out In Class intervention pilot, the first longer-term standing desk study based in the primary school classroom in Europe. The Stand Out In Class intervention was underpinned by the Behaviour Change Wheel framework, COM-B model and Behavioural Change Taxonomy (v1). This chapter describes the impact of two different intervention designs; full desk allocation (FDA) (one per child) and partial desk allocation (PDA) (children rotated between sit-stand desks and traditional seated desks) on objectively measured classroom sitting time and physical activity in Year 5 children based in a school in Bradford, UK. Changes in sitting time and physical activity in these two classes were compared to a control class located within a nearby school. Sitting time (activPAL data) and physical activity (activPAL and ActiGraph data) were measured during a 7-day period at baseline (autumn/winter) 4 months (spring) and 8 months (summer) of desk exposure. Children were not rotated on a regular basis (as planned) within the PDA group and therefore the intervention was not implemented sufficiently. Consequently, data from this group were difficult to interpret with any clarity. Large reductions were observed in the proportion of wear time spent sitting during class time and during a total week day in the FDA group compared to the control group at both 4 months (class time -25.3%, full week day -7.7%) and 8 months (class time -19.9%, full week day -5.5%). Chapter 5 also describes the impact of the Stand Out In Class intervention on adiposity, cognitive function, musculoskeletal discomfort and behaviour-related mental health at 4 months and 8 months of intervention exposure in FDA and PDA groups. The intervention demonstrated no influence on adiposity outcomes. The sit-stand desks appeared to have a negative influence on behaviour related mental health over time in both intervention groups. No changes were observed in musculoskeletal discomfort scores or in cognitive function 6 scores. Chapters 5 together suggest sit-stand desks in the classroom may influence reductions in sitting time over the longer-term within an FDA system although careful consideration are needed for day-to-day teaching practicalities. Chapter 6 evaluated the implementation of the Stand Out In Class intervention within the FDA and PDA classes using focus groups with pupils and interviews with teachers. Within the FDA class, standing classes were delivered by the lead teacher, however, acceptance of sufficient intervention delivery was based on the word of the teacher and a single classroom observation only, with no other evidence available. Within the PDA class, insufficient child rotation appeared to be due to a lack of motivation from the teacher, a behaviourally challenging group of pupils, curriculum pressures, lack of space, lack of time and the distracting nature of the desks. Overall this intervention encountered many barriers to effective implementation which should be considered in future standing desk interventions adopting a PDA system. Evaluation in this study would have benefitted from daily or weekly implementation logs for teachers in both FDA and PDA classes. Future qualitative research should attempt to explore barriers and solutions to effective PDA intervention implementation as this is the more economically feasible system. This thesis found that sit-stand desks in the classroom may influence a reduction in children's sitting time using a full allocation approach and provides important evidence for sedentary behaviour patterns, intervention design and public health and education policy for UK children. The evidence provided in this thesis is pertinent in children of South Asian and White British ethnicity of lower socio-economic position. The utilisation of standing desks in the classroom environment holds potential for reducing children's sitting time.

End-stage renal disease patients exhibit markedly elevated cardiovascular risk when compared to the general population, as well as chronic systemic inflammation as a result of aberrant immune system activation. Circulating microparticles are also elevated, driving both inflammation and thrombosis and further increasing cardiovascular risk. Regular, moderate intensity aerobic exercise may be a therapeutic strategy for the impaired immune function and pro-inflammatory environment seen in these patients, however previous studies investigating this effect have been methodologically limited. The studies included in this thesis aimed to characterise the impact of acute and regular aerobic exercise on immune function, markers of inflammation and microparticles in end-stage renal disease patients. It is hypothesised that aerobic exercise will have an anti-inflammatory impact on the immune system and cytokine environment and reduce circulating microparticle thrombotic potential.

Epigenetics is a rapidly developing field of study which investigates chemical modifications to the genome, independent of the DNA sequence, which regulate gene expression profiles. The most commonly studied epigenetic modification, DNA methylation, has been demonstrated to be influenced by lifestyle factors including diet and exercise. The modulation of DNA methylation by lifestyle factors is one potential mechanism for the reduction in disease risk induced by a healthy lifestyle. This thesis aimed to identify the impact of exercise on DNA methylation and mRNA expression and determine whether fatty acid supplementation may modulate this response. Custom assays were developed and validated (Chapter 4) to assess the DNA methylation of peroxisome proliferative activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PPARGC1A), interleukin 6 (IL6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF) at specific cytosine bases in genomic locations previously identified to be biologically relevant. Assays to investigate the mRNA expression of PPARGC1A, IL6, TNF and the DNA methyltransferases (DNMT) were validated to ensure accurate results. In Chapter 5, DNMT mRNA expression decreased following an acute bout of exercise to volitional fatigue; whereas, no changes in DNA methylation were identified as a result of exercise or supplementation of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs). However, an interaction was determined between exercise and n-3 PUFA supplementation for the DNA methylation of a single IL6 CpG site. Following exercise, decreased DNA methylation and increased mRNA expression of IL6 was detected after n-3 PUFA supplementation compared to the trial before supplementation. IL6 methylation was correlated to the n-3 PUFA content in whole blood following supplementation suggesting increased n-3 PUFA content following supplementation may prime the cells for future exercise stimuli. Chapter 6 sought to investigate whether acute exercise of an increased duration would modulate DNA methylation profiles and adopted a double-blind randomised repeated measures design to try and confirm the interaction between exercise and n-3 PUFA supplementation. Following a one-hour cycling bout, consisting of 45 mins cycling at 70% of V̇O2 followed by a 15 min time trial, we determined global hypomethylation, a reduction in PPARGC1A DNA methylation and increased mRNA expression of PPARGC1A. These methylation changes were associated with a similar reduction in DNMT expression as reported in Chapter 5. In line with the positive correlations between whole blood n-3 PUFA content in the previous chapter, an increase in IL6 methylation was determined following n-3 PUFA supplementation compared to the impact of supplementation with extra virgin olive oil; however, this relationship was not further modulated by exercise. The focus of Chapter 7 was the impact of acute resistance exercise on DNA methylation profiles and whether resistance training and fatty acid supplementation could modulate the epigenetic response. Acute resistance exercise was sufficient to increase DNA methylation of PPARGC1A and IL6, and decrease TNF DNA methylation in both leukocytes and skeletal muscle. However, neither resistance training nor fatty acid supplementation modulated this response. The magnitude of modulated DNA methylation of the cytokines IL6 and TNF was greater in skeletal muscle than it was in leukocytes and the mRNA expression of these cytokines increased as a result of acute resistance exercise in skeletal muscle but not leukocytes suggesting tissue-specificity in the inflammatory response to exercise. The resistance exercise-induced methylation of an alternative promoter of the PPARGC1A, shown for the first time, suggests changes in DNA methylation may be critical for exercise-induced expression of transcript variants. In accordance with the impact of aerobic exercise (Chapters 5 and 6), resistance exercise was sufficient to reduce the mRNA expression of DNMT3a and DNMT3b. The data in this thesis indicates acute exercise can alter DNA methylation profiles; whereas, fatty acid supplementation has a limited impact on DNA methylation. Aerobic and resistance exercise was sufficient to alter DNA methylation in leukocytes; however, a more extensive response was determined in skeletal muscle following resistance exercise. Acute exercise, independent of mode, was sufficient to reduce the mRNA expression of DNMTs; whereas, resistance exercise training did not alter DNA methylation or mRNA expression of candidate genes. Despite the novel findings presented in this thesis, a number of fundamental questions remain to fully understand the epigenetic response to exercise and nutritional interventions before they can be used to target the aberrant methylation profiles.

Since 2010 Denmark has seen a significant increase in immigration and the topic has become a significant political issue linked to the rise of far-right political parties that advocate not only a more restrictive immigration policy but also the assimilation strategy for those migrants currently resident in the country. The aim of this thesis is to analyze the development of sport policies in two Danish cities in relation to migration since 2010. The research analyses changes in national level policy and in the policies of Copenhagen and Aarhus, in which three sports projects are examined to explore the impact on policy of the interaction between national, municipal and sports club policy actors. Data were collected through a combination of semi-structured interviews with municipal civil servants, administrative and coaching staff of sports clubs and a review of material derived from official municipal and sports club documents and media reports. The data were subject to thematic content analysis. The theoretical foundation for the data collection and analysis was provided by the advocacy coalition framework and the multiple streams framework. Moreover, macro-level theories with neo-corporatism and neo-pluralism were particularly significant. Neo-corporatism was significant because of its connection with associationalism which remains strong at the local level, whereas neo-pluralism was dominant at the national level. The main findings of the research were: a) sport was identified in both cities as an important vehicle for the inclusion of recent migrants into the communal associationalist life and their introduction to the Danish societal values and norms; b) municipalities were granted by central government considerable autonomy in interpreting their responsibilities and collaborated closely with sports clubs in the design and delivery of sports programmes related to immigrants; c) two competing advocacy coalitions were identified, one favouring inclusion through assimilation and the other integration through multiculturalism; d) the assimilationist coalition was composed of by centre-right and far-right political parties and where they controlled the municipal sport department it was the sports clubs that pursued an integration/ multicultural policy; e) in both cities the most conflicting issue was gender segregated swimming; and f) in both cities Get2Sport Project was a significant link between the local sports clubs and the Danish Sport Confederation (DIF).

Mass Participation Sporting Events (MPSE) have been identified as having untapped potential for public health by encouraging physical activity through charitable and social motives. However, there is limited research on how to convert this into sustained physical activity behaviour. This thesis aimed to advance the evidence base on the public health potential of MPSEs through a series of connected studies. The first study systematically reviewed existing evidence of MPSEs contributing to physical activity behaviour and other public health benefits. Thirty studies were included (7 prospective cohort studies; 2 randomised controlled trials; 12 cross-sectional surveys; 10 qualitative studies). There were some positive changes in physical activity behaviour, intentions and self-efficacy, but evidence of decreased physical activity post-event also existed. A need for additional high-quality studies was identified, particularly evaluations with longer follow-up periods. Study two followed a prospective cohort longitudinal design to explore changes in physical activity levels of 226 charity 5km walk/run participants 3 months and 12 months post-event. Findings indicated that the majority of participants met physical activity guidelines at the time of their event, yet many did not sustain this behaviour post-event. Pre-event training was a predictor of baseline physical activity, with 3- and 12-month physical activity levels also predicted by previous physical activity behaviour. Study three utilised telephone interviews to qualitatively explore participant experiences of physical activity maintenance and withdrawal post-event in 15 participants. Two major themes emerged relating to event participation (feeling connected and sense of achievement), and two relating to physical activity experiences (goals and reinforcements). The results suggest following a training programme beforehand may lead to a sense of achievement and promote a desire to be physically active following event completion. The final study employed a preference trial design to assess the feasibility of an intervention to assist MPSE participants in maintaining physical activity post-event. Nine participants opted to join a supervised training group for 7-weeks pre-event and 11 followed the same training plan independently. Assessments of physical activity, self-efficacy and social physique anxiety were performed at baseline, post-event, and 3-months post-event. Findings indicated that group training and support led to significant increases in self-efficacy and significant decreases in social physique anxiety. No changes in objectively-measured physical activity were recorded for either group. Collectively these studies suggest that the majority of participants meet physical activity guidelines at the time of their event, yet many do not sustain this behaviour post-event. Future MPSEs may want to offer ways to help lower active participants in pre-event training to build confidence and develop autonomous motivation. Additional strategies such as goal setting, self-regulation and social support could help sustain physical activity behaviour beyond a MPSE.

It is well-established that early life environmental exposures and later life health and non-communicable disease (NCD) risk are related, however, life course evidence from low- and middle-income countries is currently limited. Guatemala, a middle-income country located in Central America, is both one of the most income inequal and most stunted countries in the world. It is also the site of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala (UVG) Longitudinal Study of Child and Adolescent Development. The study followed the growth of over 40,000 urban school children of different socioeconomic position (SEP) groups between 1953-1999. Previous research, on subsamples of the study, has identified socioeconomic inequalities in both physical growth and cognitive ability but the later life health of UVG Study individuals is unknown, as are the broader patterns of growth and development of the entire sample.

Sport organizations have faced increasing scrutiny recently for a perceived absence of care for participants. While sport is often considered a safe domain and contributes to the positive development of young people, it is an environment which can also foster violence and abuse (Parent & Hlimi, 2012). This research deals with the latter in that it examines two issues of harassing and abusive coaching behaviours that occur within sport and are related to the concept of integrity: sexual harassment and abuse and emotional abuse. Protecting participants and the sport they engage in is a fundamental role for governing bodies. Therefore, tackling problems of harassing and abusive coaching conduct is crucial for sport organizations if they are to uphold established morals through relevant policies and codes of ethics and conduct, and to encourage ethical behaviour by organizations and associated personnel to build and maintain integrity in sport. The issues of sexual harassment and abuse and emotional abuse in sport cause significant physical and emotional harm to athletes. Thus, there is a significant need to conceptualise what 'good practice' is according to existing literature, how these issues are currently being addressed within sport policy, and how improvements may be made in addressing them. To guide and focus the study, the following overarching research questions are: 1. What are 'good practices' for managing the integrity issues of harassing and abusive behaviours in sport? 2. How do identified 'good practice' standards compare with the contemporary policies of selected sport governing bodies associated with the Olympic Movement? The research methods employed were a combination of a metanarrative analysis (modified from the original work by Greenhalgh et al., [2005]) and a policy analysis of selected transnational and national sporting organizations affiliated with the Olympic Games. Conducting the metanarrative analysis in a diverse evidence base, a number of key dimensions were identified from the existing literature. These contributed to the formulation of recommendations for 'good practices' to explore within contemporary organizational policies. Elements included athlete empowerment, education, and 'non-traditional paradigms' for sexual harassment and abuse and holistic coaching approaches, normalisation, and reporting procedures for emotional abuse. The audit examined the corresponding governing bodies at the policy levels of the IOC, IFs, NOCs, and NGBs to determine how policies relating to sexual harassment and abuse and emotional abuse compared with the determined 'good practice' principles. Using the information collected to establish 'good practice' principles proved beneficial in tandem with the policy audit conducted. It demonstrated that many of the selected sport organizations currently have not implemented established knowledge and understanding to better address, manage and eliminate these issues in sport despite this information being acknowledged, for many years in some cases. The first significant finding from the analysis was a clear gap between the organizational levels of the IOC and explored NGBs in identifying strong policies pertaining to the issues at hand. Considering that morality is concerned with right conduct, ethics with conduct based on one's knowledge of right and wrong (Ianinska & Garcia-Zamor, 2006) and integrity with the combination of both concepts (McFall, 1987), the issues of sexual harassment and abuse and emotional abuse pose a severe threat, not only to individual integrity, but to the integrity of organizations and sport culture. The analysis revealed that the sexual harassment and abuse issue was addressed with only 43.26% of criterions met within the policy analysis. Thus, there is still significant room for improvement. Fasting & Sand (2015) argue organizational permissiveness may facilitate harassing and abusive behaviours and can enhance the psychological damage for survivors of such practices as identified by Dzikus (2012). Therefore, the implementation of explicit, well- constructed and evidence-based policy is crucial in addressing this problem within sport. Emotional abuse was poorly addressed with 37.40% of policy criterions met in the analysis and may reflect the difficulty and confusion associated with addressing this problem and/or the level of importance organizations interpret emotional abuse to be. The policy audit formulated for this research could be used in future as a self-assessment tool for sport administrations. Additionally, it is imperative for transparency, accountability and ease of access that all sport governing bodies display all policies relating to harassment and abuse in their organizational handbooks and online members' portals as well as publishing policies on the public areas of their websites. Strongly constructed policies are essential to the everyday practice of sport for sport stakeholders at all levels of participation. Weakly constructed policies can be extremely damaging for participants, as well as for organizations. Athlete protection is an imperative responsibility held by organizations not only to themselves, but all those involved within sport.

Post-exercise blood flow restriction (BFR) is a novel training method which, through alterations to the haemodynamic, metabolic and hypoxic stimulus, could augment skeletal muscle adaptation in endurance trained individuals. The studies described in this thesis investigated the combined effect of post-exercise BFR and interval training on angiogenic and mitochondrial biogenic molecular and adaptive responses and high-intensity endurance performance. It was initially demonstrated that a very strong correlation exists between critical power (CP), an important parameter of endurance performance, and indices of skeletal muscle capillarity (r = 0.94), implying that skeletal muscle capillarity is an important determinant of CP (Chapter 3). Chapter 4 investigated the efficacy of combining post-exercise BFR with 4 weeks of sprint interval training (SIT) (4-7 x 30 s maximal bouts) in trained individuals. SIT increased CP by ~3.5% in trained individuals, but the addition of BFR did not enhance this further. In contrast, neither skeletal muscle capillarity or mitochondrial protein content increased following SIT with or without BFR. However, there was a trend (P = 0.06) for an increase in proliferating endothelial cells after four weeks of SIT only with post-exercise BFR, tentatively suggesting that post-exercise BFR could elicit an enhanced angiogenic response when undertaken with a greater training duration and/or volume. This was investigated in Chapter 6 in which the time course of transient transcriptional changes during two weeks of post-exercise BFR combined with a higher volume high intensity interval training (HIIT) modality was examined. BFR did not enhance the transient increases in VEGF, PGC-1α of HIF-1α mRNA following HIIT during two-weeks of training and did not increase VEGF protein content. There was however, an increase in resting eNOS mRNA after two weeks only when HIIT was combined with post-exercise BFR, suggesting BFR elicited an increased shear stress stimulus. There was no increase in mitochondrial protein content or citrate synthase activity following 2 weeks of HIIT with or without post-exercise BFR. Collectively the findings from these studies imply that post-exercise BFR does not increase mitochondrial content, but although there was no increase in skeletal muscle capillarity, there were suggestions that post-exercise BFR could elicit an enhanced angiogenic stimulus when undertaken with higher training volumes and could subsequently increase performance.

A variety of metabolic disease states as well as the ageing process are characterised with a state of low-gradechronic inflammation, which may contribute to skeletal muscle wasting. Since muscle wasting is associated with increases in morbidity and all-cause mortality, targeting of skeletal muscle inflammation may prove a useful therapeutic tool to enable the preservation of skeletal muscle mass in disease states categorised by chronic low-grade inflammation. One potential avenue for intervention is via nutritional intervention, omega-3fatty acids have been implicated to have anti-inflammatory properties mediated via a variety of mechanisms. One such mechanism is through a group of bioactive lipid mediators produced in inflammatory states via the metabolism of both eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which aretermed specialised pro-resolving mediators (SPM's).

Performing exercise regularly is important for individual and society, yet effective self-regulation can be difficult. The present thesis builds upon previous literature by examining whether the content of individuals motives influence their ability to effectively self-regulate in the exercise domain. It is well-known autonomous motives enhance optimal exercise engagement relative to controlling motives. However, it is not well understood whether these motives also explain the frequency of, and emotional responses to, lapse, outcomes of which have implications for long-term exercise adherence. Similarly, although a positive link between autonomous motivation and the ability to persist amidst adversity may explain broader self-regulatory outcomes (e.g., greater exercise longevity), it is not comprehensively known whether priming autonomous motivation, which may complement more explicit motivational manipulations, can also promote persistence. Interestingly, priming autonomous motivation may also render individuals more inclined to plan more optimal exercise plans following persistence-requiring engagement, however, this effect has only been demonstrated in the absence of prior persistence. Finally, although distinct motives for exercise explain adherence to attendance-related intentions (e.g., 'I will go to the gym today'), whether these motives also explain adherence to effort-related exercise intentions (e.g., 'I will exercise at a high-intensity today') remains uninvestigated.

This thesis presents a history of sports for individuals with physical disabilities in Taiwan between 1945 and 2007. A Foucauldian lens is adopted. Primary data was collected from personal archives of key informants who had lived experience with the developments during this period and with whom interviews were also conducted. Materials were organised using Foucauldian genealogy and analysis was conducting using the lens of biopower to investigate how the bodies of people with physical disabilities were organised in relation to power in the rehabilitation and sporting context. The research portrays how, between 1945 and 1971, the epidemics of poliomyelitis left a large number of children in Taiwan paralysed, and most of them were segregated in institutions. These children became a social problem, and in these institutions, rehabilitation was regarded as physical education and thus became the hallmark of the special education at this time. Development in sports for the disabled occurred between 1972 to 1992, as the authorities began to pay attention to sports for these individuals and it was employed as a tool to encourage them to contribute to the greater national good. Between 1993 and 2007, the status of individuals with physical disabilities entered a liminal state in which they were neither fully included nor excluded in the sports for the disabled in Taiwan. The thesis concludes by highlighting how the Taiwanese State's approach to individuals with physical disabilities targeted them as a social problem that needed to be managed, and sports were employed as techniques to fulfil this goal. The disabled body then becomes a pawn in the State's power game which transformed over time, and it was made docile through the techniques of normalisation that are central to engagement with rehabilitation, physical education and sport.

There is an oddity in the long-term practice of Karate as traditionally it has been an activity that can last a lifetime, but there are many people who suffer from various chronic complaints of the lower limbs. Much research has looked at acute injuries in Karate but for the most part these injuries are not to the parts of the body that suffer the chronic problems, from this it would seem likely that chronic injuries are due to repetitive training or from minor non-contact injuries repeated intermittently. The purpose of this study is to analyse the main five karate kicks (Front kick, Roundhouse kick, Side kick, Hook kick and Back kick) in three modes (Training, Competition and Competition step). 3D motion capture system (VICON) with 2 force plate has been used to measure angles and moments at the hip and knee joints for both the kicking leg and support leg. 28 healthy high level of Karate players volunteered to be part of this study. In addition, two case studies of Taekwondo players who had injuries in different joints, case one had lower back pain and case two had a left knee injury, both with more than 6-months rehabilitation were carried out. The aim of this PhD study will be to establish joint loading at the hips and knees of kicking practices in both a basic fashion and a competition type fashion. This will be performed on a wide range of adult karateka from the age range where most competitors come from. Motion and force analysis along with inverse dynamics will be performed to examine the load on the body at specific joints and comparisons made between the basic and competition modes of technique. It is hypothesised that the competition modes of training will have higher loading to the joints and thus could be more injurious if the karateka is not suitably conditioned. Highest joints loading of karate kicks were: Highest moment for the support hip(left) about the Y axis was 1.8 N.m/kg during front kick, competition mode. The next highest moment was about the X axis at 1.7 N.m/kg during front kick, competition mode and roundhouse kick, step mode. The third highest moment was about the Z axis at 1.7 N.m/kg during hook kick, step mode. Highest moment for the support knee (left) about the X axis was 1.8 N.m/kg during the front kick, step mode. Next highest moment was about the Y axis at 0.8N.m/kg during side kick, competition and step modes. The highest moment about the Z axis was 0.4 N.m/kg during roundhouse kick, training mode. Highest moment for the kicking hip(right) about the X axis was 1.2 N.m/kg during the front kick, step mode. Highest moment about the Y axis was 0.9 N.m/kg during the front kick, step mode. Highest moment about the Z axis was 0.3 N.m/kg during the front kick, step mode and the roundhouse kick, step mode. Highest moment for the kicking knee about the X axis was 1.0 N.m/kg during the front kick, step mode. Highest moment about the Y axis was 0.3 N.m/kg during the roundhouse kick, step mode, side kick, step mode, and hook kick, step mode. Highest moment about the Z axis was 0.6 N.m/kg during front kick, competition mode. Support leg has the highest joint loading moments, from this information analysed, coaches and players should focus on the supporting leg more than the kicking leg to lessen the risk of injuries and at the same time perform the kick with the kicking leg the best way. The novelty of this study is creating a 3D motion analysis database of kinematics and kinetics of healthy karate players performing the five main kicks in three different modes with analysis of both the kicking and support legs.

In this submission I have chosen to divide my output into three parts; (1) the assessment and evaluation of human growth and (2) normal human growth and its variation with particular reference to South Africa and (3) the developmental origins paradigm. I have accumulated in excess of 300 published contributions in the field of human growth so for the sake of brevity I have chosen to include copies of 30 publications to support this submission. These publications represent mostly internationally reviewed articles and one book chapter. The various textbooks, most notable covering anthropometry, skeletal maturity, and research methods in the general field of human growth and development, that are used internationally by practitioners and students alike, have not been included in this submission yet they form a significant contribution to the field of human growth and development. The TW2 skeletal maturity method has been cited over 2,500 times and my reference work on anthropometric measures almost 500 times indicating the frequency with which these methods have been used by growth researchers.

The game of badminton is increasing not only in popularity but also in its pace and intensity. With an intense and dynamic activity profile, it is not surprising that fatigue influences performance. While there have been notational analyses performed for badminton singles match play, the literature on both cognitive and physical fatigue and its influence on performance is limited owing to the inherent difficulty in inducing fatigue in a controlled experimental setting. Moreover, apart from observable match variables and physiological responses, changes to underlying perceptual processes such as aiming are harder to identify. Yet, these changes provide key information to both athletes and coaches when designing training interventions to minimize the decrement(s) in performance associated with fatigue. The aims of this thesis were twofold. Firstly, to develop a badminton-specific protocol to investigate the influence of fatigue on singles match performance, serve accuracy and visual behaviour. Secondly, to evaluate the effect of caffeine on serve performance and exercise capacity. To achieve these aims, one pilot study and three main studies were conducted. To investigate the changes in visual behaviour during serving, the feasibility of the use of a mobile eye tracker was first evaluated in a pilot study. Thereafter, a novel badminton specific protocol involving the use of a shuttle launcher was designed (Chapter 4). The protocol elicited similar physiological responses as actual match play and had excellent test-retest reliability for all performance and objective markers of physiological stress. This protocol was used to induce fatigue and the changes in match behaviour during a 25 min simulated match, and serve accuracy was explored (Chapter 5). Though there was no significant impact on direct point(s) won/loss with fatigue, changes in shot selection were observed with players using more smash shots following fatigue (22.8 % vs. 17.8 %), p = 0.047. Long serve accuracy decreased with fatigue (radial error: 141.6 cm to 155.5 cm) without any changes in visual strategy. There was also no clear relationship between serve performance and quiet eye - the final aiming point and duration. To counter the effects of fatigue and enhance performance, approximately 74 % of elite athletes, in general, consume caffeine. In the final study, the effect of an acute dose of 6.0 mg∙kg⁻¹ BM of caffeine on exercise capacity and serve performance was investigated in elite male badminton players (Chapter 6). Time to exhaustion on the badminton protocol was longer for 75 % of the participants (8.9 % to 184.8 % improvement). Serve accuracy, however, was unaffected both positively and negatively by caffeine. No major side effect(s) were reported; this dosage is thus considered to be a safe ergogenic aid. Key contributions from this thesis include the successful development of a badminton-specific protocol which induces match-like fatigue and a more in-depth understanding of fatigue on badminton performance. While there were no changes in visual behaviour with fatigue, long serve accuracy decreased, suggesting other possible limiting factors such as muscular fatigue. Insights to the choice of shot types in the fresh and fatigued state were also drawn from this thesis. Finally, caffeine might be beneficial in helping elite players to last longer in an actual match. However, considering the individual variation in responses, caffeine ingestion strategies should be implemented on a case-by-case basis.

Introduction: This thesis explores the multidirectional relationships between physical activity, body composition and the development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and associated risk factors for comorbidities through four different studies. Study 1: Sedentary behaviour, physical activity and relationships with cardiometabolic risk and body composition in COPD (SPAaRC Study). Introduction: People with COPD have a greater prevalence of cardiovascular disease and type II diabetes than the general population. It has been suggested that reduced levels of physical activity and greater sedentary behaviour might be responsible for this. A low body mass index (BMI) and lean mass is also related to increased mortality in COPD, which may also be affected by levels of physical activity. We aimed to investigate relationships between sedentary behaviour, physical activity, body composition and cardiometabolic risk factors in subjects with COPD and in older adult control subjects for comparison. Methods: Control participants were re-recruited from the Physical Activity and Respiratory Health Study (PhARoaH) study and COPD participants recruited from the PhARoaH study and from Leicester Respiratory outpatient clinics. Participants attended a single assessment visit where they answered questionnaires on their medical history, had blood specimens taken for fasting blood glucose, lipid profile (total cholesterol, low density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL) and triglycerides), glycated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and insulin and underwent physical measurements including BMI, spirometry, blood pressure and Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry for fat mass index and lean mass index measurement. Participants were provided with an accelerometer to measure physical activity over the subsequent 7 days. Regression models were used to assess the relationships as well as to model the effect of substituting sedentary time with both light activity and moderate/vigorous activity (MVPA). Results: 80 subjects were included in the analysis (29 controls (14 men, 51 with COPD (31 men), mean age was 68.1 years and forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) was 56.4% predicted in COPD men and 56.9% predicted in COPD women. There was a positive relationship between lean mass and all physical activity intensities, but no significant relationship was found between either sedentary time or physical activity and cardiometabolic risk factors in either COPD or control subjects. Conclusion: Both light activity and MVPA are associated with greater lean mass in COPD subjects, but a larger sample and longitudinal study is needed to further elucidate the relationship between physical activity, sedentary time and cardiometabolic risk. Study 2: Body mass index across adulthood and the development of airflow obstruction and emphysema. Introduction: Though there is an established association between low BMI and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) the temporal relationship with structural and physiological changes within the lungs is unclear. This study examined the longitudinal changes in BMI, airflow obstruction (AO) and lung density throughout adulthood. Methods: BMI trajectories of participants in the Framingham Offspring Cohort from Exam 2 (n=3863 ,mean age=44), through Exam 9 (mean age=71), in those who developed Airflow Obstruction (AO) (n=1036, measured by spirometry), or low lung density (LLD) (n=225, measured by quantitative Computed Tomography), were modelled across adulthood using fractional polynomial growth curves and piece-wise linear splines. These were compared to smokers and non-smokers who did not develop these features. Tertiles of BMI in those aged below 40 years were then separately compared for the subsequent changes in lung function. Results: The pattern of BMI changes throughout adulthood in the AO group were similar to non-AO smokers and non-AO non-smokers, but lower across all ages from 30 years onwards. Subjects with low lung density on CT also had a lower BMI throughout adulthood compared to normal lung density smokers and non-smokers. Results from prediction models using piecewise linear splines of BMI throughout adulthood demonstrated that at age 35 years the AO group had a lower BMI than non-AO groups and the LLD had a lower BMI than non-LLD groups (AO: 24.7kg/m2 vs non-AO-smokers: 25.3kg/m2 vs non-AO-non-smokers: 25.9kg/m2 and LLD: 24.5 kg/m2 vs non-LLD-smokers: 26.0 kg/m2vs non-LLD-non-smokers: 24.7 kg/m2) Decline in FEV1/Forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio was steepest in the lowest BMI tertile in both sexes.Conclusion: These results suggest that mean BMI is lower throughout adulthood in those with subsequent airflow obstruction and low lung density. This, together with the finding that those with a lower BMI have a steeper decline in the ratio of FEV1/FVC, suggest body mass may have a role in COPD development. Study 3: Physical activity and the relationship with COPD and lung function changes. Introduction: Whilst physical activity is known to have a positive effect on health and is related to a reduction in hospitalisation and mortality in COPD it is unclear whether physical activity affects lung function decline. We examined the relationship between physical activity and age-related lung function decline in the Framingham Offspring Cohort. Methods: Multiple linear regression was used to examine the relationship between the Physical Activity Index (PAI) and its components in the sixth decade of life and the change in FEV1, FVC and the FEV1/FVC ratio over the subsequent decade. The cross-sectional relationship between objectively measured moderate/vigorous physical activity and FEV1 at Exam 9 was also examined using multiple linear regression. Results: There were 766 (men: 368) subjects in their sixth decade included in the analysis. A statistically significant positive relationship between the PAI and Heavy activity and FEV1 change and between the PAI, Moderate and Heavy was found in women, independent of smoking, but not in men. There was also a statistically significant positive relationship between cross-sectional objectively measured moderate/vigorous activity and FEV1 in women, but this was again not found in men. Conclusion: The positive relationship found between self-reported physical activity and lung function change together with the finding of a positive relationship between objectively measured moderate/vigorous activity and FEV1 at Exam 9 suggests that increasing Heavy activity may be associated with reduced lung function decline and play a role in prevention of COPD in women. Study 4: The influence of muscle mass in the assessment of lower limb strength in COPD. Introduction: Quadriceps Maximal Voluntary Contraction (QMVC) measurement provides functional and prognostic information in COPD. Establishment of a prediction equation would aid therapeutic decision making and assessment of outcomes. Whether including a measure of muscle mass within predictions influences the classification of weakness is unclear. Prediction equations with and without a measure of muscle mass derived in healthy adults are presented and their assessment of QMVC in two different COPD cohorts is compared.Methods: Prediction equations for QMVC were derived in healthy adults. Age, gender, height and weight entered in the first model (FFM-), and total body fat-free mass added for the second (FFM+). Percent predicted values and frequency of weakness were compared in Primary Care and Complex Care COPD cohorts. Results: Subjects: 175 Healthy Controls: (median (IQR): 54 (14) years, 31% male); 102 Primary Care: 68 (9) years, 66% male, FEV1 66.1 (25)% predicted); and 189 Complex Care: 66 (12) years, 57% male, FEV1: 29 (16)% predicted). R2 values were similar for FFM- and FFM+ in controls (0.60, 0.59), as were mean %predictions in Primary Care patients (88.3% vs 88.8%). In Complex Care %predictions were 5.2% higher with 11.9% fewer classified weak with FFM+. Conclusion: Inclusion of fat-free mass in QMVC prediction equations has little influence in healthy adults but results in lower prevalence of weakness in COPD, particularly in the Complex Care Cohort. Our findings support the use of an equation without fat-free mass for strength assessment, but its inclusion may characterise the functional deficit in the presence of low muscle mass. Conclusion to thesis: Physical activity levels may be related to cardiometabolic risk and body composition in COPD. In addition body mass and physical activity may play a role in disease development itself. The prescription of physical activity may assist in achieving optimal body composition, reducing lung function decline and improving cardiometabolic profile in individuals with or at risk of developing COPD.

Over the last decade, the fat mass and obesity associated gene (FTO) rs9939609 variant and gastrin-releasing peptide gene (GRP) rs7243357 variant have been identified as obesity susceptibility polymorphisms. Evidence from humans indicates that the former of these loci modulates obesity risk through alterations in food intake, which could be related to differences in the hunger hormone ghrelin. No studies have examined the mechanisms underlying the link between obesity and the GRP rs7243357 variant, although it is possible this polymorphism is related to disparities in the encoded satiety signal gastrin-releasing peptide. These gene-appetite relationships suggest that risk allele carriers at these polymorphisms may benefit from therapeutic interventions that target appetite and appetite hormone systems. In this regard, a single bout of high-intensity exercise transiently suppresses appetite without causing compensatory elevations in energy intake in the hours afterwards. Evidence suggests such bouts also change plasma concentrations of episodic appetite hormones in a direction consistent with the acute reduction in subjective appetite. Nevertheless, it is not known if these responses are modulated by different genotypes at the FTO rs9939609 and GRP rs7243357 loci. Thus, the aim of the present thesis was to investigate the effect of an acute bout of exercise on appetite and appetite-regulatory hormones in variants of the FTO rs9939609 and GRP rs7243357 single nucleotide polymorphisms. A total of 361 males were recruited to a database in Chapter 4. FTO rs9939609 and GRP rs7243357 genotype were determined, further to anthropometric traits, eating behaviour and levels of physical activity. As part of an exploratory analysis, Chapter 4 showed that the FTO rs9939609 and GRP rs7243357 genotypes were not linked to anthropometric traits or eating behaviours within the cohort of physically active males who partook. In Chapter 5, a cohort of 12 'obesity-risk' AA and 12 TT subjects at the FTO rs9939609 locus were recruited from the database for an acute exercise intervention study consisting of two trials: exercise and control. Individuals with the AA genotype displayed greater postprandial acylated ghrelin, subjective appetite and energy intake compared to TTs in the control trial. Exercise caused a greater suppression of acylated ghrelin in AAs, negating differences seen in the control trial. However, the suppression of appetite during exercise and the lack of compensatory changes in appetite and energy intake after exercise were similar between AAs and TTs. Chapter 6 reports a similar acute exercise intervention study performed in 'obesity-risk' TTs and GGs of the GRP rs7243357 variant. Exercise provoked a greater increase in plasma concentrations of GRP in TTs compared to GGs that nullified lower GRP levels seen in TTs in the control trial. There were no differences between TTs and GGs in appetite and energy intake in either trial, although exercise did acutely suppress appetite perceptions and did not cause elevations in appetite and energy intake in the hours after exercise. In the main, results from this thesis suggest that both the studied SNPs were linked to postprandial variations in appetite-regulatory peptides in the control trial, though only the FTO rs9939609 loci was linked to differences in appetite and energy intake. A single bout of acute exercise adjusts levels of appetite hormones in a direction accordant to the concomitant reduction in appetite, and may negate hormonal dissimilarities observed between genotypes at rest. Crucially, however, all homozygous groups from Chapters 5 and 6 showed comparable reductions in appetite during exercise and did not atone for the exercise-induced energy deficit through increases in appetite or energy intake in the hours after exercise. Therefore, despite the need for further work into the genetic variability in appetite hormone responses to exercise, the current thesis suggests exercise should continue as a universal method of provoking a transient calorie deficit.

This thesis seeks to understand how participation in voluntary football clubs can help North Korean refugees develop social capital and become better integrated into different societies. It explores these questions through three case studies of voluntary football clubs, two in South Korea and one in the UK, in which North Koreans participate. The case studies involved in-depth interviews and numerous months of participant observation at each club. The research was conducted using a critical realist perspective and contributes to the literature on migrants, social networks, social capital, sport for social capital, identity and integration. Currently, the literature concerning North Korean migrants primarily focuses on North Koreans in South Korea. Further, the literature on social capital fails to provide a consistent definition of social capital. When social capital is studied within voluntary sports organisations, its ambiguous definition leads to diverging findings on social capital and the role of sport in promoting social integration. This thesis understands social capital to mean outcome achieved through a social network. The study explores how strong and weak social networks were created at each club, and advances a framework for understanding why North Koreans exchanged a variety of different forms of social capital, which depended on their relative social network formation. This thesis finds that the best explanation for why we see different levels and types of social capital exchanges is due to the willingness of members to help each other; the specific needs of club members; and, the possession and circulation of 'tradable resources'. When these three factors occur within social networks, social capital exchanges, or outcomes, can take place. The thesis advances knowledge in several ways. First, the thesis provides an original study of UK-based North Koreans, a hitherto under-researched group. Second, the comparative study of North Korean refugees in the UK and in South Korea is novel, and enables stronger conclusions to be drawn on the integration and social capital of this population group within 'host' societies. Third, the thesis makes a significant contribution to the literature on how football clubs, or in general, voluntary sports organisations, act as social networks to provide social capital. A particular focus here is on the differences in social capital between mixed or unmixed football clubs, and on whether socially diverse or homogeneous settings are best for the social integration of migrants. Fourth, the study contributes to the social capital literature. It advances a systematic analytical framework for understanding social capital exchanges among refugee groups; this framework can be tested and applied in other contexts. The framework also contributes to the critical development and integration of the themes of trust, reciprocity, bounded solidarity, value introjection, and tradable resources with respect to social capital. The concept of 'bonded-bridgers' is advanced to highlight the role of specific individuals in producing both bonding and bridging social capital within this migrant population.

Background: Bangladeshi (BD) women have the lowest rate of participation in the moderate-vigorous physical activity (PA) among ethnic minority communities in the UK. Low level of PA is linked with lower physical performance, higher prevalence of chronic conditions and poorer physical and mental health and well-being. No structured intervention study, grounded on theory and evidence to promote PA, has been conducted that particularly target BD women. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of a participant-led PA intervention on physical performance, other bio-psycho-social health risk factors and change in health behaviour. Method: The intervention was designed and implemented by following the six steps of Intervention Mapping Protocol. Sixty-nine BD women (Age 18-46 years, Mean + SD = 34.24 + 6.5 years) took part in the intervention. Mixed method was adopted for data collection and analysis. Qualitative data were collected by conducting focus group discussion. Quantitative data were collected by conducting questionnaire survey and taking biological measures. Data were collected at baseline (T1), postintervention (T2) and eight months' after the intervention (T3) to conduct the effect evaluation. Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) with its original and several modified versions were used to measure physical performance. Body mass index, waist circumference, waist to height ratio, arm fat index, saliva cortisol and C-reactive protein were the other selected biological risk factors. General Health Questionnaire was used to measure general mental well-being. International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short form) and accelerometers were used to assess the change in health behaviour. The process evaluation was conducted where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected by interviewing the participants and the facility providers mainly at post intervention. Thematic and content analysis were the main methods of interpreting qualitative data. A series of paired t-test and repeated measure ANOVA was used to analysis the change in health risk factors. Results: The intervention had significant positive effect on improving physical performance. SPPB score was statistically significantly increased from T1 to T2 by 1.38 (95% CI, 0.83 to 1.93), p < .0005, and from T1 to T3 by 1.53 (95% CI, 1.00 to 2.06), p < .0005), but not from T2 to T3 by .16 (95% CI, - .04 to .36), p = .384. All versions of SPPB revealed this trend in change. The intervention had positive effects on BMI, waist circumference, arm circumference for a limited time and the intervention was beneficial for improvement of personal and social wellbeing. The intervention had effect in improving the social perception towards participation in PA. Self-reported change in behaviour related to PA had a significant increase from T2 to T1, but this was not supported by the data obtained from objectively measured PA. The intervention was effectively implemented, and it was adhered to and received positively by the young adults among Bangladeshi women. Conclusion: BD women were found reachable and successfully engaged in a culturally appropriate PA intervention when the intervention was developed and implemented by using Intervention Mapping Protocol. The intervention had been useful for improving physical performance, other risk factors related to health and wellbeing and health behaviour to PA. The study exemplified future scope for developing interventions to promote PA in other communities with cultural reservations.

Introduction: Current molecular biology methodologies interrogating Alternative Exon Usage (AEU) events such as alternative splicing, promoters and polyadenylation are still limited. Further, these co-transcriptional mechanisms are understudied in metabolic scenarios. Alternative transcripts produced from metabolically relevant genes should produce an alternative protein product with a different function from the canonical protein. Thus, we aim to develop a novel method that can detect AEU events accurately on a high?throughput basis. In parallel, we also aim to develop a method that measures transcript ratios on a single gene basis. Our methodologies were validated within/between adipose and muscle tissue due to their significant roles in energy metabolism but also because they both originate from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC). Methods: Large-scale exon expression was assessed using microarrays that measure each individual exon within the blood (n=13), muscle (n=14) and adipose tissue (n=14) from the FITFATTWIN cohort. These values were used to develop and validate our method: integrated Gene and Exon Model of Splicing (iGEMS). From a subset these validated genes we also demonstrate our method to measure transcript ratios which use real-time quantitative PCR (rt-qPCR) in combination with exon junction specific primers. We also employed a motif enrichment method called Analysis of Motif Enrichment (AME) to identify RNA-binding proteins (RBP) that are responsible for muscle and adipose tissue specific AEU events. Whilst comparing muscle and adipose is important developmentally, we utilised iGEMS on murine adipocytes undergoing 'browning' (n=8) when compared to white adipocytes (n=9) and also investigated 'browning' markers in human white adipose tissue from the IDEAL study (n=79). Finally, we applied iGEMS on skeletal muscle from insulin resistant (IR) individuals (n=14) and compared to healthy matched controls (n=14) from the METAPREDICT study. Results: IGEMS identified >4000 genes undergoing an AEU event between blood, adipose and muscle, from three pair-wise comparisons (FDR<5%). A subset 22 AEU events from the muscle vs adipose comparison that fairly represent this group were validated with RT-qPCR using exon specific primers and overall we achieved a 95% success rate. Next, we applied our transcript ratio method on validated genes and we were successfully able to measure these ratios for WDR7, CAPZB, CSDE1, SRSF5, TTC17, STK40, STAU1 and HNRNPM. In order to determine RBP that regulate these transcript ratios, we applied AME on each exon with flanking sequences from muscle and adipose tissue. We also integrated RBP gene expression. This resulted in 5 adipose tissue specific RBP such as RBMS3 and 12 muscle specific RBP such as RBM24 that regulate AEU within their respective tissue. We also show how transcript ratios can be used on clinical samples, as we demonstrate the transcript ratio of the calcium associated gene: RYR1 correlates with maximal voluntary contraction (p=0.048, R2 = 0.22). We also applied iGEMS on adipocytes undergoing 'browning' and we identified 555 genes (FDR<1%) undergoing an AEU event. From these genes, ~ 90% were successfully validated such as Agpat1 and Clstn3. Using this same dataset, we explored browning markers and found 60% agreement when compared to another study. The markers in agreement were then used to assess the impact of exercise and weight-loss on the 'browning' status of the white subcutaneous white adipose tissue. From potential phenotypic markers, we found that only UCP1 (p=0.006, R2 =0.09) and NATL8 (p=0.03, R2 =0.11) significantly correlated with weight?loss but was in the wrong direction if 'browning' was to occur. Using non-bias methods, we identified 181 genes that significantly correlated with weight-loss and these genes were associated with adipogenesis via C/EBPα signaling (z score = 2, P = 6.6 X 10-7 ). Lastly, iGEMS was applied on skeletal muscle form two groups with significantly different insulin AUC120 and identified >400 genes that underwent an AEU events. A select number of biologically relevant genes were validated using the whole METAPREDICT cohort (n=119). We found that only UQCRC2, TROVE2 and PKM successfully validated, and the RBP: ZFP36 is a potential regulator controlling these events. Discussion: Our new method: iGEMS was applied between blood, muscle and adipose tissue, and we were able to identify ~5-10 more AEU events than a recent RNA-seq study. Further, we identified a variety AEU events and were genuine as they were successfully validated by RT-qPCR. Thus, iGEMS demonstrates itself as a valuable tool to identify AEU events and was used in subsequent chapters. In addition to iGEMS, we developed a RT-qPCR method to accurately measure transcript ratios which are often overlooked in many AEU studies and we demonstrate its utility. When iGEMS was applied between white and brown adipocytes, this was the first time AEU was shown to occur and not just typical gene expression. These events were genuine as were successfully validated with RT-qPCR. Using a stringent set of browning markers, we found no change in subcutaneous white adipose tissue in response to combined exercise and calorie restriction. This rules out the contribution of myokines towards the 'browning' process but we have shown white adipose tissue responding by undergoing adipogenesis. The final data-set that iGEMS was applied to was between control and individuals with glucose intolerance. Gene expression differences within skeletal muscle from glucose intolerant individuals are limited but we demonstrate clear examples of AEU differences, and even more striking are exons expressed in an 'on-and-off' pattern. In conclusion, our novel method iGEMS revealed novel AEU events which provide motivation for the continual development of new biological tools.

This thesis explores discourses on modernisation agendas in sport policy in Oman. It traces the emergence, development and current status of sport policy in Oman. It also examines sport modernisation processes in Oman in the context of modernity and authenticity debates and local and global dynamics. Moreover, it seeks to uncover how discourses on modernity and authenticity, global and local, have shaped, constructed, and/or legitimised the modernisation of both elite sport and community sport in different phases of contemporary Omani history.

The prevalence of interpersonal conflict within sport relationships is high (Mellalieu et al., 2013) and seems to be posing a threat to effectiveness of coach-athlete interactions. However, despite the importance of these working alliances for sport performance and wellbeing, only little research efforts have been directed towards interpersonal processes that may impair the quality of coach-athlete relationship (e.g., disagreements, dispute). Therefore, the purpose of this PhD research project was to develop a fundamental understanding of interpersonal conflict between coaches and their athletes. The presented studies built upon a scoping review (Wachsmuth, Jowett, & Harwood, 2017) in which an initial conceptual framework and a definition of interpersonal conflict within sport relationships was forwarded. Thus, based on the available literature interpersonal conflict was defined as “a situation in which relationship partners perceive a disagreement about, for example, values, needs, opinions, or objectives that is manifested through negative cognitive, affective, and behavioural reactions” (p. 87).

Competitive sport teams are required to perform in highly pressurised situations and although some teams are able to withstand challenging conditions, many experience damaging effects during setbacks and adversity. Developing an understanding of how athletes withstand the pressures of competitive sport and sustain excellence has recently been addressed in sport psychology through the study of psychological resilience (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012; Galli & Vealey, 2008; Gucciardi, Jackson, Coulter, & Mallett, 2011). However, understanding how teams positively adapt despite encountering the demands of competitive sport has been largely overlooked. The purpose of this thesis, therefore, is to investigate the construct of team resilience in elite and competitive sport. The thesis is organised into seven chapters. Chapter one explores the challenges and pressures that competitive sports teams encounter and provides a brief overview of group dynamics in sport psychology research. Chapter two reviews the construct of psychological resilience, recent developments in sport psychology research, how resilience at the team level has been defined and conceptualised in general psychology and why it is important to extend team resilience research to the sport context.

This thesis is concerned with the occupational health of white-water raft guides working in the UK and details how working conditions and practices can lead to an increased risk of unintentional injury or ill-health. Work-related injury and ill-health is a problem across all industries in the UK, with some employees, such as those working in the Outdoor Industry, being more at risk than those working in other industries. Biological and psychosocial factors have been associated with work-related health in a range of occupational settings; however, the majority of previous studies have used non-physical occupational samples, such as office workers. Very little is known about the occupational health risk factors of those working in the Outdoor Industry, such as white-water raft guides, especially as health and safety strategies currently in place are client focused as opposed to provider focused.

In cricket, fast bowlers utilise the speed at which they are able to deliver the ball in order to be successful. Previous research has investigated the effect of different technique parameters on ball release speed using an experimental approach. While an experimental approach is suitable to understand the differences between bowlers it is not suitable to understand the changes required to improve a bowler's performance. The aim of this research was to investigate the factors that limit fast bowling using a theoretical approach. A 16-segment subject-specific torque-driven computer simulation model of the front foot contact phase of fast bowling was developed, with wobbling masses included within the shank, thigh and torso representations. Torque generators were included at the MTP, ankle and knee joints on the front leg, both hip and shoulder joints, and the elbow and wrist joints on the bowling arm.

There is little evidence as to whether exercise can improve the musculoskeletal health of older men, with no investigation of high impact exercise. This research compared the multiple joint muscle function of young (n=21) and older men (n=23) and then investigated the feasibility and influence of high impact, unilateral exercise on lower-extremity muscle function (in 3- and 6-month intervention trials) and proximal femur strength (in a 12-month intervention trial) in healthy community-dwelling older men (n=112). In study one, young and older men performed isometric (maximum and explosive) and dynamic contractions on a leg press dynamometer instrumented to record force and displacement, from which the force-velocity and power-velocity relationships were assessed. The results demonstrated that force (-20%) and velocity (-11%) were lower in older men, with the decrement in force being the major explanation for the attenuation of power during a functionally relevant multiple joint movement. During study two, in addition to the previous muscle function assessments, hop performance (net impulse) and static unilateral balance were measured before and after a 3-month high impact, unilateral exercise programme (home-based and supervised group sessions) in older men (n=20). The feasibility of this type of exercise in older men was also determined. The intervention appeared safe and feasible with no adverse effects, however there was no effect on muscle function. In study three, the influence of a longer-term (6-months) high impact, unilateral exercise intervention on muscle function was investigated in older men (exercise group n=39, control group n=18). The specific functional measurements included hop performance (net impulse), ankle plantar and dorsiflexion strength, leg press strength and static unilateral balance. Improvements in net hop impulse (12%), isometric leg press strength (4%), ankle plantarflexion strength (11%) and static unilateral balance (45%) were noted following the intervention. In studies four and five, the effect of a 12-month high impact, unilateral exercise programme on bone strength was investigated. Fifty, older men commenced the training which increased to 50 multidirectional hops, 7 days a week on one randomly allocated leg [exercise leg versus control leg]). Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and quantitative computed tomography (QCT) scans were performed before and after the intervention. The results from study four revealed that femoral neck areal bone mineral density (aBMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) modestly increased in the exercise leg (n=35; +0.7 and +0.9%) compared to the control leg (n=35; -0.9 and -0.4%) following the intervention. In study five, a segmental QCT analysis of the mid-femoral neck was applied to explore regional changes in cortical thickness in response to the high impact training. The findings demonstrated that cortical thickness increased in the super region at the mid-femoral neck (15-52%), thus producing a greater localised thickening of the cortex. The research presented in this thesis provides a comprehensive evaluation of the influence of high impact exercise on musculoskeletal health and suggests that carefully targeted high impact exercises may be suitable for incorporation into exercise interventions aimed at preventing hip fracture in healthy community-dwelling older men.

A growing body of research suggests that a cultural shift in education has taken place, where teachers work is being affected by the terrors of performativity (Ball, 2003, p. 215). According to research within the sociology of education field, within this culture what it means to be a teacher or to teach is based on performance criteria, surveillance, judgments and a lack of autonomy or personal choice. Physical education is a particularly interesting area of education through which this shifting culture can be explored as various competing discourses are drawn upon to enhance the field and, indeed, physical education has become somewhat of a contested terrain in terms of its purpose, definition and focus as it is at the hub of various competing interest groups (Keech, 2003). Drawing on a poststructural theoretical framework which views discourses as perpetuated by social structures and practices and implicated in teachers understandings of teaching and learning practices, this research considers how such discourses may impact on physical education teachers work, professionalism and identities and how they can be deconstructed to provide alternate readings and shifting subject positions. It explores teachers multiple position(ing)s within educational reforms and initiatives, illustrating how they interact with performative neo-liberal discourses to push teachers behaviours towards greater performance and regulation and considers how performativity, rather than narrowing the inequality gap, may be leading towards increased inequalities amongst pupils learning experiences (Ball, 2003; Youdell, 2004). The narratives of these teachers illustrate that for many of these physical education teachers, performativity was seen to give credence to the subject and increase its status within schools, while for others the shifting culture towards greater measurement and accountability was experienced as overwhelming. Through a clear awareness of the marginal status of physical education within schools these teachers negotiated different subject positions simultaneously. They reported features of performativity as constraining and challenging, yet also as simultaneously enabling and rewarding since they experienced performativity as enhancing their sense of professionalism and the status of their subject.

Evidence supports increased fat oxidation during sub-maximal exercise, 3h following the ingestion of a low glycaemic index (LGI) carbohydrate (CHO) meal compared with high glycaemic index (HGI) carbohydrate meal. The meals contained the equivalent of 2g/kg body mass of available carbohydrate. The aim of this thesis was to investigate whether or not the increased fat oxidation following a low glycaemic index meal is evident in recreationally active participants following the ingestion of breakfast with an available carbohydrate content of 1g.kg-1 BM.