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A three‐dimensional winter (DJF) climatology of Lagrangian diffusivity characterizing eddy mixing and transport in the northern middle atmosphere is presented. To emphasize aspects other than zonal averages, we use the theory of Lagrangian diffusivity (κyy) hitherto not applied in stratospheric contexts to our knowledge. Our formulation of Lagrangian diffusivity requires the calculation of parcel trajectories, which is made on isentropic surfaces. A Lagrangian descriptor is used to estimate the boundary of the stratospheric polar vortex (SPV). To characterize quasi‐geostrophic motions and their influence on the SPV we apply the wave activity flux (W) and Local Wave Activity (A) $(\mathcal{A})$. Our data set is the ERA5 reanalysis for the period 1979–2013. Results for κyy show important zonal asymmetries. In the lower and middle stratosphere, κyy is highest at midlatitudes, particularly around the prime meridian. This location is surrounded by manifolds associated with hyperbolic trajectories emanating from the outer SPV boundary. κyy is also high within the SPV, and near the locations where the SPV boundary is open. Zonal asymmetries are also clear in W at midlatitudes. The larger values of A $\mathcal{A}$ are at high latitudes and upstream of the opening of the vortex boundary. The role of quasi‐geostrophic waves on the south‐north shift of the midlatitude westerlies is highlighted. In particular, the waves contribute to open the SPV boundary at around 90W. The interannual variability of κyy is explored by contrasting winters with positive‐negative Northern Annular Mode index, and Sudden Stratospheric Warmings of displacement‐split type. Plain Language Summary: This paper applies a novel approach to studying eddy mixing and transport in the northern middle atmosphere during winter (December–January–February). The approach is based on the concept of Lagrangian diffusivity, a measure of how quickly air parcels mix together. Unlike traditional diagnostics that rely on longitudinal or contour‐based averages, Lagrangian diffusivity provides a detailed three‐dimensional view of the mixing. This approach, hitherto restricted to oceanographic applications, is a significant contribution of the present work. We employ a Lagrangian descriptor, a tool based on parcel trajectory length, to locate the stratospheric polar vortex SPV boundary. Also, we investigate the influence of quasi‐geostrophic motions on the SPV using wave activity flux and local wave activity (LWA). The data set is the ERA5 reanalysis from 1979 to 2013. The results reveal pronounced zonal asymmetries in Lagrangian diffusivity and wave activity flux. Mixing is highest at midlatitudes around the prime meridian and at locations within the SPV. LWA is elevated at high latitudes and upstream of the climatological vortex boundary opening, highlighting the role of quasi‐geostrophic waves in the southward displacement of midlatitude westerlies. Comparisons are made of diffusivity during weak and strong vortex winters, as well as of during winters with and without Sudden Stratospheric Warmings. Key Points: Locally, the largest values of Lagrangian diffusivity around the vortex are along the prime meridian at all levels in the stratosphereThe location of maximum diffusivity is bounded by the edge of the climatological displaced vortex and a manifold emanating from the vortex edgeWhen the Northern Annular Mode is positive, the vortex boundary closes and diffusivity is much lower inside [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the role of vegetation biophysical processes (VBPs) in the structure and evolution of the South American monsoon system (SAMS) with an emphasis on the precipitation field. T e approach is based on comparing ensemble simulations by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction general circulation model (GCM) in which the land surface parameterization in one ensemble includes an explicit representation of vegetation processes in the calculation of surface fluxes while the other does not [GCM/Simplified Simple Biosphere Model (SSiB) and GCM/Soil, respectively], but with similar monthly mean surface albedo and initial soil moisture. The ensembles consist of five pairs of 1-yr integrations differing in the initial conditions for the atmosphere. The results show that, during the austral summer, consideration of explicit vegetation processes does not alter the monthly mean precipitation at the planetary scale. However, at continental scales, GCM/SSiB produces a more successful simulation of SAMS than GCM/Soil. The improvement is particularly clear in reference to the seasonal southward displacement of precipitation during the onset of the SAMS and its northward merging with the intertropical convergence zone during the monsoon mature stage, as well as better monthly mean austral summer precipitation over the South American continent. The changes in surface water and energy balances and circulation in October (monsoon onset) and December (the start of the monsoon mature stage) were analyzed for a better understanding of the results and mechanisms involved. It was found that the major difference between the simulations is in the partitioning of latent heat and sensible heat fluxes (i.e., different Bowen ratio), which produced different latitudinal and longitudinal thermal gradients at the surface. A stronger sensible heat flux gradient between continent and ocean in the GCM/SSiB simulation helped generate an enhanced ventilation effect, which lowered moist static energy (MSE) over the northeast coast of South America leading to stronger counterclockwise turning of the low-level wind from the Atlantic Ocean toward the continent during the premonsoon and early monsoon stages, modifying moisture flux convergence (MFC). It was further identified that the seasonality of savanna and shrublands to the south and east of the Amazon rain forest contributed to the variability of heating gradients and influenced the SAMS onset and, its northward merge with the ITCZ at the early monsoon mature stage. The comparison of the differences between precipitation, evaporation, advection of MSE, and MFC based on simulations using two different land parameterizations suggested that the VBP modulated the surface water budget, but its impact on precipitation was determined by the changes in circulation via changes in heat gradient and MSE.

The realistic simulation of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) by the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (CGCM) is used to test two simple theoretical models of the phenomenon: the recharge oscillator model of Jin and the delayed oscillator model of Schopf, Suarez, Battisti, and Hirst (SSBH). The target for the simple models is provided by the CGCM results prefiltered with singular spectrum analysis to extract the leading oscillatory mode. In its simplest form, the Jin model can be reduced to two first ordinary differential equations. If the parameters of the model are fit in this reduced form, it appears to capture the period of the CGCM oscillatory mode. If the Jin model is instead fit using the individual physical balances that are used to derive it, substantial misfits to the CGCM are encountered. The SSBH model can likewise be expressed either in a condensed form or a larger set of individual physical balances with highly analogous results.It is shown that the misfits in both simple models can be greatly reduced by introducing a spinup timescale for wind stress relative to eastern equatorial Pacific SST. In the CGCM, this spinup time appears to be associated with a combination of atmospheric and ocean mixed layer processes in a way consistent with the “mixed mode” regime discussed by Syu and Neelin, which is not included in the Jin and SSBH models. These appear indistinguishable in this analysis, although the latter is more sensitive to fitting.This paper provides a bridge between work on ENSO by theoreticians and numerical modelers. The CGCM results validate the conceptual framework of the simple models by demonstrating that they can provide a plausible representation of ENSO with realistic sets of parameters. The results also suggest that, in terms of realistic ENSO variability, the framework of the simple models can be made substantially more complete by including the adjustment time between wind stress and eastern Pacific SST required by the coupled spinup of the atmosphere and the ocean mixed layer processes outside this region.

This study examines the impacts of the Indian Ocean on the ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) cycle by performing experiments with a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model (CGCM). In one of the experiments, the ocean model domain includes only the tropical Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Run). In the other experiment, the ocean model domain includes both the Indian and tropical Pacific Oceans (the Indo-Pacific Run). The experiment results show that the CGCM simulation of ENSO including both the Indian and tropical Pacific Oceans tends to be more realistic than that including the tropical Pacific Ocean only. In particular, the Indo-Pacific Run produces ENSO events with larger amplitude and greater variability on decadal time scales. The interactive Indian Ocean also affects the surface heat flux anomalies in the Indian Ocean during the ENSO cycle and surface wind stress anomalies in both the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are indications that both surface heat flux and wind stress are actively forcing a portion of the interannual variability in the Indian Ocean during the ENSO cycle.

This study examines interannual variability produced by a recent version of the University of California, Los Angeles, coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (CGCM). The CGCM is shown to produce ENSO-like climate variability with reasonable frequency and amplitude. A multichannel singular spectrum analysis identifies the simulated ENSO cycle and permits examination of the associated evolution of atmospheric and oceanic states. During the cycle, the evolution of upper-ocean heat content in the tropical Pacific is characterized by a zonal oscillation between the western and eastern equatorial Pacific and a meridional oscillation between the equator and 10°N. The zonal oscillation is related to the amplification of the cycle, and the meridional oscillation is related to the transition between phases of the cycle. It is found that the north–south ocean heat content difference always reaches a threshold near the onset of a warm/cold event.The three-dimensional evolution of ocean temperature anomalies in the tropical Pacific during the simulated ENSO cycle is characterized by four major features: 1) a build up in the subsurface of the western equatorial sector during the pre-onset stage, 2) a fast spread from the western subsurface to the eastern surface along the equator during the onset stage, 3) a zonal extension and amplification at the surface during the growth stage, and 4) a northward and downward spread during the decay stage.Ocean temperature budget analyses show that the buildup of subsurface temperature anomalies is dominated by the vertical advection process in the western sector and the meridional advection process in the central sector. The former process is associated with vertical displacements of the thermocline, which is an important element of the delayed oscillator theory. The latter process is associated with a Sverdrup imbalance between trade wind and thermocline anomalies and is emphasized as the primary charge–discharge process by the recharge oscillator theory. It is argued that both processes play key roles in producing subsurface ocean memory for the phase transitions of the ENSO cycle.

The hypothesis that Peruvian stratocumulus play an important role on both the annual mean and annual variations of sea surface temperature (SST) in the eastern equatorial Pacific is examined. The problem is addressed by performing sensitivity experiments using the University of California, Los Angeles, coupled atmosphere–ocean GCM with different idealized temporal variations of stratocumulus in a region along the coast of Peru.The results obtained are consistent with the notion that Peruvian stratocumulus are a key component of the interhemispherically asymmetric features that characterize the annual mean climate of the eastern equatorial Pacific, including the cold SSTs off Peru and the absence of a southern ITCZ. The principal new finding of this study is that the annual variations (i.e., deviations from the annual mean) of Peruvian stratocumulus are linked to the differences between the amplitude, duration, and westward propagation of the warm and cold phases of the equatorial cold tongue. In the model’s context, only if the prescribed annual variations of Peruvian stratocumulus have the same phase as the observed variations are those differences successfully captured.air-sea interaction, climate forcing, sea surface temperature, stratocumulusThe impact of Peruvian stratocumulus on equatorial SST involves “dynamical” and “thermal” effects. The former develop through an enhancement of the northerly component of the surface wind from the Peruvian coast to the equator. The thermal effects develop through the special relationships between SST and surface evaporation over the equatorial cold tongue, which contributes to extend the cold phase until the end of the year. A successful portrayal of this behavior requires a realistic simulation of the annual variations of surface wind over the equatorial cold tongue.

This paper contrasts the sea surface temperature (SST) and surface heat flux errors in the Tropical Pacific simulated by the University of California, Los Angeles, coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (CGCM) and by its atmospheric component (AGCM) using prescribed SSTs. The usefulness of such a comparison is discussed in view of the sensitivities of the coupled system.Off the equator, the CGCM simulates more realistic surface heat fluxes than the AGCM, except in the eastern Pacific south of the equator where the coupled model produces a spurious intertropical convergence zone. The AGCM errors are dominated by excessive latent heat flux, except in the stratus regions along the coasts of California and Peru where errors are dominated by excessive shortwave flux. The CGCM tends to balance the AGCM errors by either correctly decreasing the evaporation at the expense of cold SST biases or erroneously increasing the evaporation at the expense of warm SST biases.At the equator, errors in simulated SSTs are amplified by the feedbacks of the coupled system. Over the western equatorial Pacific, the CGCM produces a cold SST bias that is a manifestation of a spuriously elongated cold tongue. The AGCM produces realistic values of surface heat flux. Over the cold tongue in the eastern equatorial Pacific, the CGCM simulates realistic annual variations in SST. In the simulation, however, the relationship between variations in SST and surface latent heat flux corresponds to a negative feedback, while in the observation it corresponds to a positive feedback. Such an erroneous feature of the CGCM is linked to deficiencies in the simulation of the cross-equatorial component of the surface wind. The reasons for the success in the simulation of SST in the equatorial cold tongue despite the erroneous surface heat flux are examined.