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There are different ways in which scholars comprehend secularism. According to some scholars, secularism is the phenomenon in which religion is fully separated from the state and plays no part in the public domain. Others are of the view that, while secularism denotes separation between religion and state, there should be little involvement of religion in the public domain because it is a vital part of the lives of individuals. This Article aims to discuss the various interpretations of secularism, create a classification of secularism models, and examine how secularism is considered in Bangladesh. For this purpose, this Article analyzes statements given by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (known as the Father of the Nation and the leader of the Bangladesh Awami League) to identify the secularism model followed in Bangladesh. Sheikh Mujib and his political party, the Awami League, did not explicitly use the word “secularism” until the independence war in 1971. However, secularist ideals were emphasized by the party. After independence, the Constitution of Bangladesh was adopted in 1972 and secularism was included in the Constitution. In Bangladesh, secularism is understood as the antithesis of communalism. Anti-communalism in Bangladesh does not refer to anti-religion; rather, it eliminates conflict between the various subnational communities and describes politics by giving equal status to individuals in a unified national community. President Ziaur Rahman removed the secularism principle from the Constitution in 1977 through the Fifth Amendment. Islam was declared as the state religion in 1988 during the rule of President Hussain Muhammad Ershad through the Eighth Amendment. In 2011, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution was adopted during the tenure of Sheikh Hasina’s Awami League as Sheikh Hasina saw the necessity for following an established religion model, while making sure that sufficient rights were also awarded to religious minorities. Adopting Islam as the state religion is considered by the Awami League as a means of satisfying the Muslim majority and peacefully coexisting with religious groups such as Hefazat-e-Islam. This Article argues that the Awami League’s stance implies the practice of modus vivendi, which, in contemporary terms, signifies a means of living together for the population, in spite of their contradictory features, which emerge mostly because of difference in opinions, interests, religions, ethnicities, or beliefs. Through the practice of modus vivendi, these differences are recognized and facilitated. The meaning of secularism (and the issue of whether the state should be committed to secularism) is deeply contested in Bangladesh, making the country an interesting case study.

Present study was conducted in three different Upazilas viz., Batiaghata, Dacope and Rupsha of Khulna district, Bangladesh from August 2016 to May 2017. Data were collected through personal contact, farms and market survey and discussion with shrimp farmers and drug sellers. Farmers of the research areas used Oxolinic acid, Renamucin, Oxytetracucline, Lime, Salt, Formalin, Eco-solution, Basudin and Timsen to treat the viral, bacterial and fungal diseases. Average recovery of 55-60% and 35-40% were recorded from bacterial and fungal diseases of shrimp respectively, but there was no recovery in case of viral diseases. Shrimps of nontreated ghers were affected by WSSV, Black gill disease, Black spot disease, Zoothumnium and external fouling but almost no disease were observed in aqua drugs-treated ponds. Histological findings showed that shrimp muscles and hepatopancreas in drug treated ponds and ghers had some pathological changes like necrosis, vacuums and hemorrhages which were severe in winter season, whereas, normal structure of muscle and hepatopancreas were observed during summer season. Production of shrimp in the study areas was recorded 6916 Kg/ha in probiotics and aqua-drugs treated ponds, whereas, 543 Kg/ha in non-treated ghers. From the present study it could be concluded that aqua-drugs and chemicals have positive effect on shrimp health and production except some pathological changes in the investigated organgs of shrimp especially during winter season.

This paper explores how knowledge management (KM) through information and communication technologies (ICTs) can foster Internet-based digital innovation in the public sector in Bangladesh. A total of twelve semi-structured interviews were conducted with relevant persons in four government organizations. Findings reveal that there are huge unexplored areas where ICT can be utilized for the creation, storage and dissemination of knowledge. By reducing time, cost & movement ICT-utilized KM can promote ICT-led innovation. The main barrier of ICT-led KM initiatives is the lack of awareness of the government officials. This study is an extension of the previous findings. It contributes significantly to a better understanding of ICT’s integration with KM and innovation. It suggests that one of the core functions of ICT in the public offices is to manage knowledge. The paper offers some insights into how in a digital environment, knowledge can be innovatively managed in the public sector organizations.

The core function of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is to provide protection to refugees. Refugee status determination is normally conducted by the UNHCR to identify whether an individual should be protected, assisted or, sometimes, resettled to another country, or to give governments advice relative to his refugee status application. This chapter analyses and applies refugee status determination. It examines the concept of a refugee under the 1951 Refugee Convention. Next, the chapter discusses the responsibility for conducting refugee status determination and the mechanisms by which refugee status determination takes place. Finally, it puts forward the requirements for procedures to determine eligibility for refugee status. Keywords:1951 Refugee Convention; refugee status determination; UNHCR

The role of regional international human rights instruments in the protection and promotion of human rights is remarkable in the sense that the treaties have significantly and immensely contributed to important changes in the laws of many countries. This chapter looks into three regional human rights instruments, namely the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 1950; the Inter American Convention on Human Rights, 1969 and the African Charter on Human and People's Rights, 1981 and examines (a) the circumstances leading to the establishment of the regional human rights enforcement mechanisms; (b) the nature and scope of rights & guarantees and (c) safeguarding procedures under these instruments. It examines whether the enforcement mechanisms are, consistent with State sovereignty, and whether they are gradually enhancing the promotion of fundamental human rights and freedoms. Keywords: African Charter on Human and People's Rights; enforcement mechanisms; European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms; Inter American Convention on Human Rights; promotion of human rights; protection of human rights; regional human rights instruments; state sovereignty

This chapter examines the argument that legislation against the wearing of religious clothing, including face-covering clothing, is necessary to perserve the secular nature of the state. The fears of Islam and Muslims that are often at the basis of this argument has two main aspects: the fear of proselytising and the fear of segregation from society and the rejection of minimum requirements of life in society. The chapter assesses this and includes an analysis of how the argument for the preservation of the secular nature of the state and these fears can be countered.

Intellectual property is crucial to the promotion of innovation. It provides an incentive to innovate as well as security for investment in innovation. The industries of the 21st century-information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, communications, education and entertainment – are all knowledge-based. The WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement), adopted in 1994 at the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, requires all WTO member countries to provide for the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights. Having forged a link for the first time between intellectual property rights and the international trading system, the adoption of TRIPS means that any country that aims to participate fully in the global economy needs to understand the role of intellectual property and align its intellectual property laws and practices with the international minimum standards prescribed by TRIPS. However, for developing and least-developed countries, the implementation of intellectual property systems and enforcement mechanisms raises questions and challenges. Does recognition and enforcement of intellectual property serve their development needs and objectives? Does TRIPS encourage or hinder the transfer of technologies to developing and least-developed countries, particularly those that meet urgent needs in areas such as public health, food security, water and energy? What is the effect of TRIPS on developing countries’ access to knowledge and information? Is there scope for flexibility in implementation of TRIPS in pursuit of development strategies?

While the Ramsar Convention for the Protection of Wetlands of International Importance was the first habitat-based treaty, much of the recent focus of international attention in the area of freshwater has been on the regulation of watercourses. Attention is only beginning to be given to the interconnectedness of freshwater, habitats and ecosystems. This chapter explores and analyses the context, structure and substantive rules for the couservation and managemet of freshwater, habitats and ecosystems across the complex range of multilateral environmental agreements.