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The Dawn spacecraft observed the presence of dark material, which in turn proved to be associated with OH and H-rich material, on the surface of Vesta. The source of this dark material has been identified with the low albedo asteroids, but it is still a matter of debate whether the delivery of the dark material is associated with a few large impact events, to micrometeorites or to the continuous, secular flux of impactors on Vesta. The continuous flux scenario predicts that a significant fraction of the exogenous material accreted by Vesta should be due to non-dark impactors likely analogous to ordinary chondrites, which instead represent only a minor contaminant in the HED meteorites. We explored the continuous flux scenario and its implications for the composition of the vestan regolith, taking advantage of the data from the Dawn mission and the HED meteorites. We used our model to show that the stochastic events scenario and the micrometeoritic flux scenario are natural consequences of the continuous flux scenario. We then used the model to estimate the amounts of dark and hydroxylate materials delivered on Vesta since the LHB and we showed how our results match well with the values estimated by the Dawn mission. We used our model to assess the amount of Fe and siderophile elements that the continuous flux of impactors would mix in the vestan regolith: concerning the siderophile elements, we focused our attention on the role of Ni. The results are in agreement with the data available on the Fe and Ni content of the HED meteorites and can be used as a reference frame in future studies of the data from the Dawn mission and of the HED meteorites. Our model cannot yet provide an answer to the fate of the missing non-carbonaceous contaminants, but we discuss possible reasons for this discrepancy., Comment: 31 pages, 7 figures, 4 tables. Accepted for publication on the journal ICARUS, "Dark and Bright Materials on Vesta" special issue

In the last few years Cassini-VIMS, the Visible and Infared Mapping Spectrometer, returned to us a comprehensive view of the Saturn's icy satellites and rings. After having analyzed the satellites' spectral properties (Filacchione et al. (2007a)) and their distribution across the satellites' hemispheres (Filacchione et al. (2010)), we proceed in this paper to investigate the radial variability of icy satellites (principal and minor) and main rings average spectral properties. This analysis is done by using 2,264 disk-integrated observations of the satellites and a 12x700 pixels-wide rings radial mosaic acquired with a spatial resolution of about 125 km/pixel. The comparative analysis of these data allows us to retrieve the amount of both water ice and red contaminant materials distributed across Saturn's system and the typical surface regolith grain sizes. These measurements highlight very striking differences in the population here analyzed, which vary from the almost uncontaminated and water ice-rich surfaces of Enceladus and Calypso to the metal/organic-rich and red surfaces of Iapetus' leading hemisphere and Phoebe. Rings spectra appear more red than the icy satellites in the visible range but show more intense 1.5-2.0 micron band depths. The correlations among spectral slopes, band depths, visual albedo and phase permit us to cluster the saturnian population in different spectral classes which are detected not only among the principal satellites and rings but among co-orbital minor moons as well. Finally, we have applied Hapke's theory to retrieve the best spectral fits to Saturn's inner regular satellites using the same methodology applied previously for Rhea data discussed in Ciarniello et al. (2011)., Comment: 44 pages, 27 figures, 7 tables. Submitted to Icarus

Titan is one of the primary scientific objectives of the NASA ESA ASI Cassini Huygens mission. Scattering by haze particles in Titan's atmosphere and numerous methane absorptions dramatically veil Titan's surface in the visible range, though it can be studied more easily in some narrow infrared windows. The Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) instrument onboard the Cassini spacecraft successfully imaged its surface in the atmospheric windows, taking hyperspectral images in the range 0.4 5.2 ?m. On 26 October (TA flyby) and 13 December 2004 (TB flyby), the Cassini Huygens mission flew over Titan at an altitude lower than 1200 km at closest approach. We report here on the analysis of VIMS images of the Huygens landing site acquired at TA and TB, with a spatial resolution ranging from 16 to14.4 km/pixel. The pure atmospheric backscattering component is corrected by using both an empirical method and a first-order theoretical model. Both approaches provide consistent results. After the removal of scattering, ratio images reveal subtle surface heterogeneities. A particularly contrasted structure appears in ratio images involving the 1.59 and 2.03 ?m images north of the Huygens landing site. Although pure water ice cannot be the only component exposed at Titan's surface, this area is consistent with a local enrichment in exposed water ice and seems to be consistent with DISR/Huygens images and spectra interpretations. The images show also a morphological structure that can be interpreted as a 150 km diameter impact crater with a central peak.

The Dawn mission has completed its mapping phases at Vesta and millions of spectra have been acquired by the Visible and InfraRed Mapping Spectrometer, VIR(1). VIR characterizes and maps the mineral distribution on Vesta -strengthening the Vesta HED linkage- and provides new insights into Vesta s formation and evolution(2,3). VIR spectra are dominated by pyroxene absorptions near 0.9 and 2.0 m and large thermal emission beyond 3.5 m. Although almost all surface materials exhibit howardite-like spectra, some large regions can be interpreted to be richer in eucritic (basaltic) material and others richer in diogenititic (Mg-orthopyroxenitic) material. The Rheasilvia basin contains Mg-pyroxene-rich terrains for example. Vesta' s surface shows considerable diversity at local scales. Many bright and dark areas(3,4) are associated with various geological features and show remarkably different morphology. Moreover, VIR detected statistically significant, but weak, variations at 2.8 m that have been interpreted as indicating the presence of OH-bearing phases on the surface(5). The OH distribution is uneven with large regions lacking this absorption feature. Associations of 2.8 m band with morphological structures indicate complex process responsible for OH. Vesta exhibits large spectral variations that often correlate with geological structures, indicating a complex geological and evolutionary history, more similar to that of the terrestrial planets than to other asteroids visited by spacecrafts.

NASA's Dawn spacecraft entered orbit around asteroid (4) Vesta in July 2011 for a yearlong mapping orbit. The surface of Vesta as imaged by the Dawn Framing Camera (FC) revealed a surface that is unlike any asteroid we have visited so far with a spacecraft. Albedo and color variations on Vesta are the most diverse in the asteroid belt with a majority of these linked to distinct compositional units on the asteroid s surface. FC discovered dark material on Vesta. These low albedo surface features were first observed during Rotational Characterization 3 phase at a resolution of approx. 487 m/pixel. Here we explore the composition and possible meteoritical analogs for the dark material on Vesta.

The thermal behavior of areas of unusual albedo at the surface of Vesta can be related to physical properties that may provide some information about the origin of those materials. Dawn s Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIR) [1] hyperspectral cubes can be used to retrieve surface temperatures. Due to instrumental constraints, high accuracy is obtained only if temperatures are greater than 180 K. Bright and dark surface materials on Vesta are currently investigated by the Dawn team [e.g., 2 and 3 respectively]. Here we present temperature maps of several local-scale features that were observed by Dawn under different illumination conditions and different local solar times.

In this work, we will compare ob-served temperatures of the surface of Vesta using data acquired by the Dawn [1] Visible and Infrared Map-ping Spectrometer (VIR-MS) [2] during the approach phase to model results from the KRC thermal model. High thermal inertia materials, such as bedrock, resist changes in temperature while temperatures of low thermal inertia material, such as dust, respond quickly to changes in solar insolation. The surface of Vesta is expected to have low to medium thermal inertia values, with the most commonly used value being extremely low at 15 TIU [4]. There are several parameters which affect observed temperatures in addition to thermal inertia: bond albedo, slope, and surface roughness. In addition to these parameters, real surfaces are rarely uniform monoliths that can be described by a single thermal inertia value. Real surfaces are often vertically layered or are mixtures of dust and rock. For Vesta's surface, with temperature extremes ranging from 50 K to 275 K and no atmosphere, even a uniform monolithic surface may have non-uniform thermal inertia due to temperature dependent thermal conductivity.

The bulk properties of Vesta have previously been linked directly to the howardite, eucrite, and diogenite (HED) meteorites through remote mineral characterization of its surface from Earth-based spectroscopy [e.g., 1]. A long-standing enigma has been why does Vesta s surface appear to have suffered so little alteration from the space environment, whereas materials exposed on the Moon and some S-type asteroids are significantly changed (grains develop rims containing nano-phase opaques [e.g. 2]). The Dawn spacecraft is well suited to address this issue and is half through its extended mapping phase of this remarkable proto-planet [3]. On a local scale Dawn sees evidence of recent exposures at craters, but distinctive surface materials blend into background at older craters. The presence of space weathering processes are thus evident at Vesta, but the character and form are controlled by the unique environment and geologic history of this small body.

The average spectrum of Vesta, obtained by VIR in the range 0.25-5.1 microns, shows clear evidence of absorption bands due to pyroxenes and thermal emissions beyond 3.5 11m. Vesta shows considerable variability across its surface in terms of spectral reflectance and emission, band depths, bands widths and bands centers, reflecting a complex geological history. Vesta's average spectrum and inferred mineralogy resemble those of howardite meteorites. On a regional scale, significant deviations are seen: the south polar 500km Rheasilvia impact crater has a higher diogenitic component, and equatorial regions show a higher eucritic component. This lithologic distribution, with a concentration of Mg-pyroxenes in the Rheasilvia area, reinforces the hypothesis of a deeper diogenitic crust excavated by the impact that formed the Rheasilvia crater, and an upper eucritic crust, whose remnants are seen in the equatorial region. This scenario has implications for Vesta differentiation, consistent with magma ocean models. However, serial magmatism models could also have concentrated pyroxene cumulates in plutons emplaced within the lower crust

On Vesta, the region of the infrared spectrum beyond approximately 3.5 micrometers is dominated by the thermal emission of the asteroid's surface, which can be used to determine surface temperature by means of temperature-retrieval algorithms. The thermal behavior of areas of unusual albedo seen at the local scale can be related to physical properties that can provide information about the origin of those materials. Dawn's Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIR) hyperspectral cubes are used to retrieve surface temperatures, with high accuracy as long as temperatures are greater than 180 K. Data acquired in the Survey phase (23 July through 29 August 2011) show several unusual surface features: 1) high-albedo (bright) and low-albedo (dark) material deposits, 2) spectrally distinct ejecta, 3) regions suggesting finer-grained materials. Some of the unusual dark and bright features were re-observed by VIR in the subsequent High-Altitude Mapping Orbit (HAMO) and Low-Altitude Mapping Orbit (LAMO) phases at increased pixel resolution. To calculate surface temperatures, we applied a Bayesian approach to nonlinear inversion based on the Kirchhoff law and the Planck function. These results were cross-checked through application of alternative methods. Here we present temperature maps of several local-scale features that were observed by Dawn under different illumination conditions and different local solar times. Some bright terrains have an overall albedo in the visible as much as 40% brighter than surrounding areas. Data from the IR channel of VIR show that bright regions generally correspond to regions with lower thermal emission, i.e. lower temperature, while dark regions correspond to areas with higher thermal emission, i.e. higher temperature. This behavior confirms that many of the dark appearances in the VIS mainly reflect albedo variations. In particular, it is shown that during maximum daily insolation, dark features in the equatorial region may rise to temperatures greater than 270 K. However, individual features may show different thermal behaviours, as a result of differences in composition and/or structure (e.g, average grain size of the surface regolith, porosity, etc.). To complement the temperature and near-infrared emissivity derived from the infrared spectra, a separate work is devoted to calculate thermal inertia and other thermal properties using theoretical models which solve the heat equation for airless bodies, and model the distribution of temperatures due to surface roughness variations.

Dawn VIR spectra are characterized by pyroxene absorptions and no clear evidence for abundant other minerals are observed at the scale of the present measurements. Even though Vesta spectra are dominated by pyroxenes, spectral variation at regional and local scales are evident and distinct color units are identified. Although almost all of the surface materials exhibit spectra like those of howardites, some large units can be interpreted to be material richer in diogenite (based on pyroxenes band depths and band centers) and some others like eucrite-rich howardite units. VIR data strongly indicate that the south polar region (Rheasilvia) has its own spectral characteristics, indicating the presence of Mg-pyroxene-rich terrains (diogenite-like), while the equatorial areas have swallower band depths and average band centers at slightly longer wavelengths, consistent with more eucrite rich materials. Vesta surface shows considerable diversity at smaller scales (tens of km), in terms of spectral reflectance and emission, band depths and slopes. Many bright and dark spots are present on Vesta. Dark spots have low reflectance at visible wavelengths and are spectrally characterized by shallower 1 and 2 micron bands with respect the surrounding terrains. Bright materials have high reflectance and are often spectrally characterized by deep pyroxenes absorption bands. Vesta presents complex geology/topography and the mineral distribution is often correlated with geological and topographical structures. Ejecta from large craters have distinct spectral behaviors, and materials exposed in the craters show distinct spectra on floors and rims. VIR reveals the mineralogical variation of Vesta s crustal stratigraphy on local and global scales. Maps of spectral parameters show surface and subsurface unit compositions in their stratigraphic context. The hypothesis that Vesta is the HED parent body is consistent with, and strengthened by, the geologic and spectral context for pyroxene distribution provided by Dawn.

The occurrence of olivines on Vesta were first postulated from traditional petrogenetic models which suggest the formation of olivine as lower crustal cumulates. An indirect confirmation is given by their presence as a minor component in some samples of diogenite meteorites, the harzburgitic diogenites and the dunitic diogenites, and as olivine mineral clasts in howardites. Another indication for this mineral was given by interpretations of groundbased and Hubble Space Telescope observations that suggested the presence of local olivine-bearing units on the surface of Vesta. The VIR instrument onboard the DAWN mission has been mapping Vesta since July 2011. VIR acquired hyperspectral images of Vesta s surface in the wavelength range from 0.25 to 5.1 m during Approach, Survey and High Altitude Mapping (HAMO) orbits that allowed a 2/3 of the entire asteroid surface to be mapped. The VIR operative spectral interval, resolution and coverage is suitable for the detection and mapping of any olivine rich regions that may occur on the Vesta surface. The abundance of olivine in diogenites is typically lower than 10% but some samples richer in olivine are known. However, we do not expect to have extensive exposures of olivine-rich material on Vesta. Moreover, the partial overlap of olivine and pyroxene spectral signatures will make olivine difficult to detect. Different spectral parameters have been used to map olivine on extraterrestrial bodies, and here we discuss the different approaches used, and develop new ones specifically for Vesta. Our new methods are based on combinations of the spectral parameters relative to the 1 and 2 micron bands (the most prominent spectral features of Vesta surface in the visible and the infrared), such as band center locations, band depths, band areas, band area ratios. Before the direct application to the VIR data, the efficiency of each approach is evaluated by means of analysis of laboratory spectra of HED meteorites, pyroxenes, olivines and their mixtures.

4 Vesta is known to have a surface of basaltic material through visible/near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (1). Vesta s spectrum has strong absorption features centered near 0.9 and 1.9 m, indicative of Fe-bearing pyroxenes. The spectra of HED (howardite, eucrite and diogenite) meteorites have similar features (1). This led to the hypothesis that Vesta was the parent body of the HED clan (2,3) and the discovery of a dynamical Vesta family of asteroids (Vestoids) provides a further link between Vesta and HEDs (4). Data from the Dawn VIR (Visible InfraRed mapping Spectrometer) (5) characterize and map the mineral distribution on Vesta, strengthen the Vesta - HED linkage and provide new insights into Vesta s formation and evolution.

The canonical characterization of the lunar crust is based principally on available Apollo, Luna, and meteorite samples. The crust is described as an anorthosite-rich cumulate produced by the lunar magma ocean that has been infused with a mix of Mgsuite components. These have been mixed and redistributed during the late heavy bombardment and basin forming events. We report a new rock-type detected on the farside of the Moon by the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) on Chandrayaan-1 that does not easily fit with current crustal evolution models. The rock-type is dominated by Mg-spinel with no detectible pyroxene or olivine present (<5%). It occurs along the western inner ring of Moscoviense Basin as one of several discrete areas that exhibit unusual compositions relative to their surroundings but without morphological evidence for separate processes leading to exposure.

India's Chandrayaan-1 successfully launched October 22, 2008 and went into lunar orbit a few weeks later. Commissioning of instruments began in late November and was near complete by the end of the year. Initial data for NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) were acquired across the Orientale Basin and the science results are discussed here. M 3 image-cube data provide mineralogy of the surface in geologic context. A major new result is that the existence and distribution of massive amounts of anorthosite as a continuous stratigraphic crustal layer is now irrefutable.

From the initial era or lunar exploration, we have learned that many processes active on the early Moon are common to most terrestrial planets, including the record of early and late impact bombardment. Since most major geologic activity ceased on the Moon approx. 3 Gy ago, the Moon's surface provides a record of the earliest era of terrestrial planet evolution. The type and composition of minerals that comprise a planetary surface are a direct result of the initial composition and subsequent thermal and physical processing. Lunar mineralogy seen today is thus a direct record of the early evolution of the lunar crust and subsequent geologic processes. Specifically, the distribution and concentration of specific minerals is closely tied to magma ocean products, lenses of intruded or remelted plutons, basaltic volcanism and fire-fountaining, and any process (e.g. cratering) that might redistribute or transform primary and secondary lunar crustal materials. The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3, or "m-cube") is a state-of-the-art imaging spectrometer that will fly on Chandrayaan-1, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) mission to be launched late 2007 to early 2008. M3 is one of several foreign instruments chosen by ISRO to be flown on Chandrayaan-1 to complement the strong ISRO payload package. M3 was selected through a peer-review process as part of NASA s Discovery Program. It is under the oversight of PI Carle Pieters at Brown University and is being built by an experienced team at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Data analysis and calibration are carried out by a highly qualified and knowledgeable Science Team. To characterize diagnostic properties of lunar minerals, M3 acquires high spectral resolution reflectance data from 700 to 3000 nm (optional to 430 nm). M3 operates as a pushbroom spectrometer with a slit oriented orthogonal to the S/C orbital motion. Measurements are obtained simultaneously for 640 cross track spatial elements and 261 spectral elements. This translates to 70 m/pixel spatial resolution from a nominal 100 km polar orbit for Chandrayaan-1 . The primary science goal of M3 is to characterize and map lunar surface mineralogy in the context of its geologic evolution as outlined above. This translates into several sub-topics that focus on exploring the mineral character of the highland crust, characterizing the diversity basaltic volcanism, and identifying potential volatile concentrations near the poles. The primary exploration goal is to assess and map lunar mineral resources at high spatial resolution to support planning for future, targeted missions.

By successively orbiting both 4 Vesta and 1 Ceres the Dawn mission directly addresses the longstanding goals of NASA and the planetary community to understand the origin and evolution of the solar system by obtaining geophysical and geochemical data on diverse main belt asteroids. Ceres and Vesta are two complementary terrestrial protoplanets (one apparently "wet" and one "dry"), whose accretion was terminated by the formation of Jupiter. Ceres is little changed since it formed in the early solar system, while Vesta has experienced significant heating and differentiation. Both have remained intact over the age of the solar system, thereby retaining a record of events and processes from the time of planet formation. Detailed study of the geophysics and geochemistry of these two bodies provides critical benchmarks for the early solar system conditions and processes that shaped its subsequent evolution. Dawn provides the missing context for both primitive and evolved meteoritic data, thus playing a central role in understanding terrestrial planet formation and the evolution of the asteroid belt. Dawn is to be launched in May 2006 arriving at Vesta in 2010 and Ceres in 2014, stopping at each to make 11 months of orbital measurements. The spacecraft uses solar electric propulsion both in cruise and in orbit to make most efficient use of its xenon propellant. The spacecraft carries a framing camera, visible and infrared mapping spectrometer, gamma ray/neutron spectrometer, a laser altimeter, magnetometer, and radio science.

The Cassini mission Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) is currently returning data for the Galilean satellites. Examples of the new satellite data and the initial interpretations will be presented in the context of the Galileo NIMS data and results. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

The Galileo Near Infrared Spectrometer (NIMS) provides a combination of spectroscopic and imaging capabilities. For geological studies of Callisto, this instrument can perform regional mapping while simultaneously determining composition and mineralogy. This data can help determine the surface evolution. NIMS will search for hydroxilated silicates, opaque minerals, and organic material.

The Galileo spacecraft's Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer.

The Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) onboard the Galileo spacecraft performed spectral and thermal imaging of asteroid 951 Gaspra during the spacecraft flyby on October 29, 1991. Measurements of the hemispherically averaged temperature on Gaspra as the spacecraft approached the asteroid will also be reported. Differences resulting from other choices for thermophysical parameters in the model will be explored. Similar measurements are currently being planned for the Galileo encounter with asteroid 243 Ida, which will occur in late August of 1993.

MinMap has been selected by the Lunar Scout program to characterize and map the mineral composition of the Moon. The instrument will be built as a collaborative effort between Brown University, SETS Technology Inc., and Ball Aerospace Corp. MinMap is a visible to near-infrared imaging spectrometer that contains 192 spectral channels from 0.35-2.4 microns with signal to noise greater than 200 and 256 cross-track spatial elements. The spectrometer design has a 6 deg field of view (FOV) and utilizes grating dispersive elements and two dimensional detectors (no moving parts). An 'image cube' of data is produced that contains two dimensions of spatial information and one dimension of spectral information. All spectral channels and cross-track spatial elements are recorded simultaneously with spacecraft motion scanning the second spatial dimension. The high spectral resolution and continuous spectral range of MinMap are designed to measure the diagnostic absorption features of principal lunar minerals and their lithologic mixtures. Since the optical properties of lunar materials change in a regular manner upon exposure to the space environment, this spectral range is also quite sensitive to variations in exposure history (soil maturity). Nominal measurement stragegy is to obtain full global data of the Moon at 180 m/pixel from a 450 km polar orbit during the first month or two of operation. A 100 km orbit is anticipated for the remaining part of a 1 year mission allowing higher resolution data (approx. 80 m/pixel) to be obtained for targeted regions. MinMap exceeds LE x SWG's measurement recommendations and will provide the highest spatial resolution compositional map of lunar rocks and soils currently planned for orbital missions. Since all spectral channels are co-registered and obtained simultaneously, 'image cube' data swaths will be available for analysis almost immediately.

Twenty multispectral sets of calibrated coregistered Voyager 2 images of the Uranian satellites are analyzed in order to identify spectrally distinct surface units and associate these units with specific endogenic or exogenic surface processes. Several regions on each satellite where significant spectral/compositional diversity could be expected were identified by morphologic unit mapping. All the Uranian satellites were found to exhibit some degree of spectral variability associated with bright impact craters, with the typical trend being that the bright craters and their associated ejecta deposits are less red than the remainder of the satellites by 5 to 30 percent. Oberon shows the greatest variability, followed by Titania and Ariel. Morphologic features on Miranda and Ariel possibly associated with endogenic processes such as tectonism or ice volcanism do not exhibit as high a degree of spectral variability relative to their surroundings as bright impact craters.

The paper presents imaging spectroscopic data and preliminary interpretations acquired during the 1988 perihelic opposition of Mars at the highest spatial resolution achieved from earth for spectrometric measurements (all contiguous spatial sampling for nearly 70 percent of the planet) and at a higher spectral resolution (R = 350) than most previous measurements in the (0.4-1.1)-micron wavelength range. Absorption features appearing near 0.6-0.7 and 0.80-0.95 micron are attributed to Fe(3+) crystal field transitions, confirming previously made measurements at lower spectral resolution. It is shown that attempts to reconcile the overall spectral shape with those of laboratory minerals or Mars analog soils spectra affirm the recent interpretations that hematite may account for nearly all of the 18 wt pct Fe2O3 measured by Viking Landers.