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The primary purpose of this study was to examine, using meta-analytical techniques, the differential effects of differing intensities of acute exercise on speed and accuracy of cognition. Overall, exercise demonstrated a small, significant mean effect size (g = 0.14, p less than 0.01) on cognition. Examination of the comparison between speed and accuracy dependent variables showed that speed accounted for most of the effect. For speed, moderate intensity exercise demonstrated a significantly larger mean effect size than those for low and high intensities. For speed of processing during moderate intensity exercise, central executive tasks showed a larger effect size than recall and alertness/attention tasks; and mean effect size for counterbalanced or randomized studies was significantly greater than for studies in which a pre-exercise followed by during or post-exercise protocol was used. There was no significant difference between mean effect sizes when testing took place post-exercise compared to during exercise for speed but accuracy studies demonstrated a significantly larger mean effect size post-exercise. It was concluded that increased arousal during moderate intensity exercise resulted in faster speed of processing. The very limited effect on accuracy may be due to the failure to choose tests which are complex enough to measure exercise-induced changes in accuracy of performance. (Contains 2 tables.)

This research aimed to investigate the time course effect of a moderate steady-state exercise session on response execution and response inhibition using a stop-task paradigm. Ten participants performed a stop-signal task whilst cycling at a carefully controlled workload intensity (40% of maximal aerobic power), immediately following exercise and 30 min after exercise cessation. Results showed that moderate exercise enhances a subjects' ability to execute responses under time pressure (shorter Go reaction time, RT without a change in accuracy) but also enhances a subjects' ability to withhold ongoing motor responses (shorter stop-signal RT). The present outcomes reveal that the beneficial effect of exercise is neither limited to motor response tasks, nor to cognitive tasks performed during exercise. Beneficial effects of exercise remain present on both response execution and response inhibition performance for up to 52 min after exercise cessation. (Contains 2 tables and 3 figures.)

The main issue of this study was to determine whether cognitive control is affected by acute moderate exercise. Twelve participants [4 females (VO[subscript 2 max]=42 ml/kg/min) and 8 males (VO[subscript 2 max]=48 ml/kg/min)] performed a Simon task while cycling at a carefully controlled workload intensity corresponding to their individual ventilatory threshold. The distribution-analytical technique and the delta plot analysis [Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2002). Activation and suppression in conflict tasks: Empirical clarification through distributional analyses. In W. Prinz & B. Hommel (Eds.), "Common mechanisms in perception and action. Attention and performance" (Vol. 19, pp. 494-519). Oxford: Oxford University Press.] were used to assess the role of selective response inhibition in resolving response conflict. Results showed that cognitive processes appeared to be differently affected by acute moderate exercise. Reaction time results confirmed that performance is better (faster without change in accuracy) when the cognitive task is performed simultaneously with exercise. Between-trial adjustments (post-conflict and post-error) highlighted that cognitive control adjustments are also fully efficient during exercise. However, the effect of congruency (Simon effect) appeared to be more pronounced during exercise compared to rest which suggests that the response inhibition is deteriorated during exercise. The present findings suggest that acute moderate exercise differently affects some specific aspects of cognitive functions. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

It is well established that acute moderate-intensity exercise improves cognitive performance. However, the effects of acute high-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive performance have not been well characterized. In this review, we summarize the literature investigating the exercise-cognition interaction, especially focusing on high-intensity aerobic exercise. We discuss methodological and physiological factors that potentially mediate cognitive performance in response to high-intensity exercise. We propose that the effects of high-intensity exercise on cognitive performance are primarily affected by the timing of cognitive task (during vs. after exercise, and the time delay after exercise). In particular, cognitive performance is more likely to be impaired during high-intensity exercise when both cognitive and physiological demands are high and completed simultaneously (i.e., the dual-task paradigm). The effects may also be affected by the type of cognitive task, physical fitness, exercise mode/duration, and age. Second, we suggest that interactions between changes in regional cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral oxygenation, cerebral metabolism, neuromodulation by neurotransmitters/neurotrophic factors, and a variety of psychological factors are promising candidates that determine cognitive performance in response to acute high-intensity exercise. The present review has implications for recreational, sporting, and occupational activities where high cognitive and physiological demands are required to be completed concurrently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expert performers in sports that include a high proportion of closed skills have often been found to score relatively high in field independence tests; a field-independent cognitive style may be advantageous for learning and performance of closed skills. The relationship between field dependence--independence (measured on a Portable Rod and Frame Test) and the acquisition of a kayak skill was examined. Undergraduates (6 men, 11 women; M age=21.6 yr., SD=3.2) who had no previous kayaking experience participated. Participants completed a structured teaching session (2 hr.) designed to develop three key subskills necessary for the kayak roll. Number of trials taken to consistently perform the underwater orientation and paddle movement subskills and duration of practice taken to develop the upper/lower body separation subskill as well as participants' ability to complete the roll were assessed. Field independence was associated with better performance of subskills and skill acquisition tests. Learners with greater field independence may have an advantage when acquiring sport skills that require cognitive restructuring and a strong reliance on kinesthetic and proprioceptive feedback. DOI 10.2466/PMS.110.2.479-487

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of one bout and three intermittent bouts of short-duration, high-intensity running on the performance of a sports-specific psychomotor skill. Participants (N = 13) were male soccer players (M age 20.5 yr., SD = 2.0) who had been playing semi-professionally for M = 2.1 years, SD = 1.11 and trained twice a week. They undertook a soccer-passing test in three conditions: following rest, following a 100-m sprint and following 3 x 100-m sprints, with 30-sec. rest intervals between sprints. Passing accuracy showed a significant linear deterioration, while number of passes showed a significant quadratic effect. Low to moderate linear regression correlations were found between posttest heart rate and absolute and variable errors on the test. It was concluded that short-duration, high-intensity exercise has a negative effect on accuracy in a sports-specific task that requires both perceptual judgment and motor control.

The primary purpose was to examine the effect of incremental exercise on a noncompatible response time task. Participants (N= 9) undertook a 4-choice noncompatible response time task under 3 conditions, following rest and during exercise at 70% and 100% of their maximum power output. Reaction and movement times were the dependent variables. Maximum power output had been previously established on an incremental test to exhaustion. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance yielded a significant effect of exercise intensity on the task, but observation of the separate univariate repeated-measures analyses of variance showed that only movement time was significantly affected. Post hoc Tukey tests indicated movement time during maximal intensity exercise was significantly faster than in the other two conditions. The secondary purpose of the study was to assess whether increases in plasma concentrations of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline during exercise and power output would act as predictor variables of reaction and movement times during exercise. Catecholamine concentrations were based on venous blood samples taken during the maximum power output test. None of the variables were significant predictors of reaction time. Only power output was a significant predictor of movement time ([R.sup.2]=.24). There was little support for the notion that peripheral concentrations of catecholamines directly induce a central nervous system response.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of exercising at the epinephrine threshold and at Maximum Power Output on the performance of a skill that requires both decision-making and motor performance. Participants (N=12) undertook an incremental test to exhaustion from which their epinephrine threshold and Maximum Power Output were calculated. They were then examined on a soccer skill test following rest and exercise that was previously determined to elicit their epinephrine threshold and Maximum Power Output. The soccer test examined the participants' speed and accuracy of response. Speed of response was measured by voice reaction time and whole body reaction time. No significant effects of exercise were shown for any of the variables. The need for further research using more complex skill tests and the use of discontinuous exercise protocols, rather than continuous ones, is recommended.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of the performance of male amateur soccer players on tests of field dependence/independence and soccer-specific decision-making tests. The relationships between the participants' (N = 14) accuracy, and speed of decision, on simple and complex soccer decisionmaking tests; scores on Parts B or C of the Group Embedded Figures Test under normal conditions; scores on Parts B or C of the Group Embedded Figures Test when timed; and time taken to complete the timed condition of the Group Embedded Figures Test were examined. There were no significant correlations between performance on the soccer specific tests and the tests of field dependence/independence.

The purpose of this study was to examine the anticipation of professional soccer goalkeepers when facing right- and left-footed penalty kicks. Subjects were shown a videotape of 10 right-footed and 10 left-footed penalty kicks. A standard temporal occlusion paradigm was used, with each penalty being presented at 3 occlusion points, 2 frames before foot-ball contact, at the moment of foot-ball contact, and 2 frames after foot-ball contact. A 2-way (foot x occlusion point) analysis of variance (with repeated measures) indicated that anticipation to right-looted kicks was significantly better than that to left-footed kicks. There were no other significant results. Post hoc interviews indicated that the subjects claimed to use angle of approach to the ball, foot position at contact, and hip position at the time of foot-ball contact as the main cues to aid anticipation.

To examine the effect of moderate and fatiguing exercise on the simple reaction times of recreational athletes, 12 subjects took a simple reaction-time test while at rest and while cycling on a Monark cycle ergometer at 70% and 100% of maximum workload. To estimate 70% and 100% of maximum workload the subjects underwent a standard incremental test until exhaustion, defined as subjects being unable to maintain the required pedal rate of 70 rpm. Simple reaction time during maximal exercise was significantly slower than in the other two conditions which did not differ significantly from one another. Heart rate and rate of perceived exertion differed significantly for all three conditions.

The purpose of this study was to compare the scores on the Group Embedded Figures Test, a measure of field dependence, for 25 male intermediate-level snooker players with scores of 25 intermediate-level sportsmen engaged in soccer, rugby, field hockey, and tennis and to examine the relation between scores on field dependence and performance on a snooker decision-making test. All the snooker players also took a test of decision making in snooker. The snooker players scored significantly more field independent than the sports-science majors on the Group Embedded Figures Test. A Pearson correlation of 0.78 was obtained between scores on the Group Embedded Figures Test and the decision-making test. As there may be an association between scores on field dependence and decision making in snooker, further research should examine sports like lawn bowls and pool where decisions are made in a static environment.