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Writing is a critical academic and life skill, but many school-age children struggle with the complexity of written expression. Given the importance of writing, there is a clear need for a systematic approach to identifying and supporting struggling writers, including writers with learning and emotional disabilities. One such approach is known as data-based instruction (DBI). This article presents an overview of DBI and guidance on how educators can use the DBI steps with assessment data to inform their classroom writing instruction. Additional resources are shared to support teachers in using DBI with their struggling writers and writers with learning and emotional disabilities.

The overall aim of the current investigation was to develop and validate the initial version of the Minnesota Inference Assessment (MIA). MIA is a web-based measure of inference processes in Grades K-2. MIA leverages the affordances of different media to evaluate inference processes in a nonreading context, using age-appropriate fiction and nonfiction videos coupled with questioning. We evaluated MIA's technical adequacy in a proof-of-concept study. Taken together, the results support the interpretation that MIA shows promise as a valid and reliable measure of inferencing in a nonreading context for students in Grades K-2. Future directions involve further development of multiple, parallel forms that can be used for progress monitoring in K-2. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED606358.]

Many educators are unprepared to meet the needs of students with the most intensive reading intervention needs. The purpose of this review was to identify how researchers have provided professional development (PD) to support educators' implementation of intensive reading interventions, the extent to which these approaches included essential PD elements, and how researchers have measured implementer outcomes. In the 26 studies reviewed, implementers received initial training, and most received some form of ongoing support. Most studies appeared to incorporate one or more essential PD elements, though many lacked sufficient detail regarding the presence of these elements. Researchers used a variety of fidelity measures and other methods to assess implementer outcomes, which were typically positive. Results of this review indicate the need for researchers to report more detailed descriptions of PD activities, as well as the need for continued research on how best to support teachers' implementation of intensive reading interventions.

The present study tested the postulation that "knowledge begets reading, which begets knowledge." Using Random Intercepts Cross-Lagged Panel Models (RI-CLPM), we analyzed a U.S. nationally representative data set to examine the directionality and magnitude of the longitudinal relation between domain knowledge (operationalized as science domain knowledge) and reading throughout the elementary years (from kindergarten to fifth grade), while accounting for important covariates, such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, English language proficiency, basic literacy skills, and demographic information. Moreover, we conducted multi-group RI-CLPM analyses to examine whether language status (being bilingual or monolingual) moderates the longitudinal relation between domain knowledge and reading. The results showed that the relation between domain knowledge and reading is bidirectional and positive throughout the elementary years, providing empirical evidence that domain knowledge and reading may mutually enhance with each other. In addition, language status did not moderate the relation between domain knowledge and reading, suggesting that the directionality and magnitude of the relation were similar between bilingual and monolingual students. Taken together, the results have important implications for integrating content knowledge and English language arts core instruction in elementary grades. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED623594.]

Generating accurate inferences is crucial for the successful comprehension of text and is a skill that needs to be supported starting in the early grades. Teachers can support inference-making during read-aloud lessons by asking inferential questions and providing scaffolding and feedback on students' inference-making. In this article, we describe instructional principles to support students' inference-making specifically during read-alouds. We also share findings from our research in K-2 classrooms that show how inferential questions, scaffolding, and feedback in read-aloud lessons can support primary-grade students' inference-making. Finally, we describe steps to design and implement read-aloud lessons for supporting the development of inference-making in primary-grade students.

Teacher-level factors are theoretically linked to student outcomes in data-based instruction (DBI; Lembke et al., 2018). Professional development and ongoing support can increase teachers' knowledge, skills, and beliefs related to DBI, as well as their instructional fidelity (McMaster et al., 2020). However, less is known about how each of these teacher-level factors influences student progress during an intervention. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between several important teacher-level factors--teachers' writing instruction fidelity, knowledge and skills related to DBI, explicit writing orientation, and writing instruction self-efficacy--and students' writing growth. Participants were 49 U.S. elementary teachers and their 118 students struggling with early writing skills. Using hierarchical linear modeling, we found a significant positive relation between DBI knowledge and skills and student writing growth, but no relation was found between writing instruction fidelity, writing orientation, or self-efficacy and student writing growth. Implications for writing instruction fidelity measurement in DBI and professional development related to teachers' DBI knowledge and skills are discussed.

Data from a small randomized control trial of teachers' use of Data-Based Instruction (DBI) for early writing were analyzed to determine the influence of teacher knowledge, skills, and treatment fidelity on student Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) slope. Participants included 11 elementary grade teachers who delivered intensive intervention in early writing and their students (n = 31), all identified as either at risk for or with disabilities that affect their writing. Teachers received professional development and ongoing coaching to support the implementation of DBI for improving their students' early writing skills. Results from a multiple regression analysis suggest that teacher knowledge and skills in DBI was strongly related to student CBM slope in early writing (p < 0.01) and a small but significant relation between fidelity of writing instruction and student CBM slope (p < 0.01). Implications for instructional coaching and improving student writing progress are discussed.

Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) is a class-wide structured supplementary paired reading programme to support learners with their reading (Fuchs et al., 1997). What remains at the core of implementing PALS in any given location is the co-creation with teachers to ensure PALS fits with that educational context. This paper discusses the involvement of teachers as co-creators in the process of adapting PALS in England, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Taiwan and Iceland. The aim is to demonstrate the importance of careful adaptation when implementing a programme adopted from another country. Each adaption used a different methodological approach to co-creation. For example, in England, field notes, informal conversations and interviews were utilised for co-creation. In Iceland, preschool and elementary teachers were instrumental in translating and adapting the PALS materials to the Icelandic context. From each adaption, the teachers supported the development of a literacy programme that was suitable for classroom use. In England, teachers' involvement resulted in the removal of the motivational point system. For the UAE context, PALS began in English to support second language learning, but the instructional routines were a good 'fit' for the school culture and were developed in Arabic. For the Taiwan context, PALS provided an empirical basis for a model of differentiated instruction to enhance the reading literacy of Chinese-speaking elementary students. In Iceland, teachers trained other teachers in PALS as a research-based and efficient approach to meeting diverse learning needs of students, especially those with Icelandic as an additional language. Careful adaptation, piloting and the involvement of key stakeholders is important for the successful implementation of a reading programme.

This study examines factors that influence readers' cognitive processing (i.e., inference generation) and the development of a mental representation of text: comprehension skill and working memory (WM). Elementary students (N = 61) participated in causal questioning conditions with narrative texts to examine text- and knowledge-based inferences generated when probed during versus after reading. Recalls were examined to assess readers' mental representations of texts after-reading and answering questions. Skilled comprehenders generated more goal- and subgoal-related text-based inferences during and after reading and included more original text information and less background knowledge in their recalls of texts than did less-skilled comprehenders. Skilled comprehenders with high WM also generated more goal-related text-based inferences than did those with low WM. Findings support and extend previous research regarding how readers struggle with inference generation and may further inform the development of causal questioning interventions to help improve struggling readers' comprehension of narrative texts.

With over 70% of fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade students in the United States scoring below proficiency levels in writing (NCES, 2009), teachers must provide early and effective writing intervention to accelerate students' writing skills to meet grade-level standards. In this paper, we provide teachers with a theoretical framework to conceptualize the writing process, link evidenced-based writing interventions to each component of writing, and discuss how to create a writing instructional plan to individualize instruction. Then, we outline a data-based decision making process for intervention delivery. Our aim is to provide educators with steps to identify students' writing needs, translate these needs into actionable teaching strategies, and accelerate writing progress for students who struggle to meet grade-level writing standards.

We examined the extent to which the timing of inferential questioning influenced kindergartners' inferencing performance in a non-reading context, while also taking into account individual differences in language comprehension and executive function. Students completed the eight-week Early Language Comprehension Individualized Instruction (ELCII) application by responding to audiovisual inferential questions administered in one of two timing conditions: either (1) during video watching at various points ("online") or (2) after the video was finished ("offline"). Results suggest that online questioning fostered greater overall gains in inferencing skill from pretest to posttest. Moreover, students with higher executive function demonstrated greater gain in inferencing than students with lower executive function. Likewise, students with higher language comprehension skills demonstrated greater gains in inferencing than students with lower language comprehension skills. Theoretical and instructional implications of the findings and areas for future research are discussed. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED611780.]

We examined the classification accuracy of Curriculum-Based Measurement in writing (CBM-W) Picture Word prompts scored for words written (WW), words spelled correctly (WSC), and correct word sequences (CWS). First graders (n = 133) were administered CBM-W prompts and the Test of Written Language-Third Edition (TOWL-3; Hammill & Larsen, 1996). Prompts scored for WSC showed acceptable levels of sensitivity (0.947) and specificity (0.587) with the TOWL-3 Contextual Language. Positive predictive values were low (approximately 0.20 to 0.30), and negative predictive values were high (mostly above 0.95). Overall classification accuracy, represented by the area under curve (AUC), ranged from 0.727 to 0.831. Further research regarding ways to improve classification accuracy of CBM-W and preliminary implications for practice are discussed.

Few teachers receive adequate preparation to provide effective individualized instruction for children with intensive early writing needs. In this article, the authors describe an attempt to close this learning gap, by developing Data-Based Instruction-Tools, Learning, and Collaborative Support (DBI-TLC), a comprehensive professional development (PD) system that provides tools, learning opportunities, and ongoing collaborative supports for teachers to implement DBI in early writing. They describe the theoretical framework that has guided this work, the teacher population with whom they worked, their approach to assessing important teacher outcomes, and their development process. They highlight key findings that align with their theory of change, and discuss implications for further research and teacher preparation.

We examined effects of research-based early writing intervention delivered within a data-based instruction (DBI) framework for children with intensive needs. We randomly assigned 46 students with and without disabilities in Grades 1 to 3 within classrooms to either treatment or control. Treatment students received research-based early writing intervention within a DBI framework for 30 min, 3 times per week, for 12 weeks. Control students received business-as-usual writing instruction. We measured writing performance using curriculum-based measures (CBM) and Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ III). We found significant treatment effects on CBM outcomes (Hedges g = 0.74 to 1.36). We also found a significant interaction between special education status and condition on the WJ III favoring treatment students with disabilities (Hedges g = 0.45 to 0.70). Findings provide preliminary support for using a combination of research-based intervention and DBI with students with intensive writing needs.

Curriculum-based measures (CBMs) are necessary for educators to quickly assess student skill levels and monitor progress. This study examined the use of the alphabet writing fluency task, a CBM of writing, to assess handwriting fluency--that is, how well children access, retrieve, and write letter forms automatically. In the current study, the alphabet writing fluency task was administered at both the beginning and end of the kindergarten school year. Scores were calculated for two time increments, 15 and 60 s, and compared with an alphabet writing, untimed task. All three scores were compared with criterion measures of writing, including both standardized writing assessments and compositional CBMs of writing. Results indicate that measuring alphabet writing fluency using either timed tasks (15- or 60-s) at the beginning or the end of kindergarten may not be a useful or valid endeavor. In contrast, the alphabet writing, untimed task measure showed stronger correlations to criterion writing measures in comparison with the 15- and 60-s alphabet writing fluency tasks and also showed greater concurrent and predictive validity. Limitations and further areas of study are discussed.

In this article, the literature on instruction in morphological analysis strategies with English Language Learners (ELLs) is reviewed to identify vocabulary outcomes for these students. The nature of instruction and quality of outcomes are examined for ELLs in general, and also for those with or at risk of reading disabilities. A total of nine studies met inclusion criteria for this review. While preliminary, results suggest that morphological analysis strategies are a promising approach to improving the vocabulary knowledge of ELLs, including those with or at risk of reading disabilities. Future research in this area is worth exploring, and several directions are provided.

We attempted to strengthen an evidence-based, peer-mediated, first-grade reading program (First Grade Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies [PALS]) by modestly revising its content and adding a repeated-reading (RR) component. In a cluster-randomized trial, we conducted a component analysis of the revised program by creating two versions of it. "PALS+Fluency" represented the modified program with an RR component, whereas "PALS-Only" represented the same program without RR. We tested the efficacy of the two PALS versions together against controls and against each other to determine if peer-mediated RR had "value added." With moderator analyses, we further explored whether the PALS programs benefited weaker and stronger readers alike. Thirty-three first-grade classroom teachers (and 491 students) from eight urban schools were randomly assigned to the three study groups within their schools. The PALS-Only and PALS+Fluency programs ran for 22 weeks. Multilevel modeling showed that the combined effects of the two PALS programs on phonological awareness (PA), word reading, and reading fluency were superior to those of controls. Students' pretreatment PA moderated combined program effects on PA and word reading, indicating stronger effects for students with weaker PA. PALS-Only students improved PA skills (over PALS+Fluency students) with stronger effects for those with weaker pretreatment PA.

In this paper we describe the process of monitoring fidelity of implementation for a teacher-implemented early writing intervention. As part of a large, federally funded project, teachers who worked with students in grades 1 through 3 in schools across two states in the US were recruited and then randomly assigned to implementation and control conditions. Using Data-Based Individualization (DBI) as a framework for best practice in assessment and intervention, teachers in the implementation group received professional development on early writing intervention and assessment and then implemented these practices with their students who had significant writing challenges. Coaches, who were part of the research project, supported teachers and also observed teachers in both the implementation and control conditions at least twice during the course of the 20-week study. This paper focuses on the results of the fidelity measures that were administered throughout the project. An overview of the importance of fidelity checks is followed by a description of the fidelity tools used, as well as data from those tools. Areas of strength and challenge for teachers when implementing early writing assessment and intervention and engaging in data-based decision making with fidelity are discussed, along with recommendations regarding the practical and research importance of fidelity checks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reading comprehension is multidimensional and complex. The persistent challenges children, adolescents, and even adults face with reading comprehension call for concerted efforts to develop assessments that help identify sources of difficulties and to design instructional approaches to prevent or ameliorate these difficulties. Doing so requires drawing on extant research to understand the core components and processes of reading comprehension. This article reviews the theoretical and empirical literature on the construction of meaning during reading comprehension and derives implications for research, practice, and policy related to instruction and assessment. We focus specifically on the inferential processes that extract meaning from text and the sources of knowledge that facilitate the extraction and construction of meaning.

This review systematically identified and compared the technical adequacy (reliability and validity evidence) of reading curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tasks administered to students who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH). This review included all available literature written in English. The nine studies identified used four CBM tasks: signed reading fluency, silent reading fluency, cloze (write in missing words given blank lines within a passage), and maze (circle the target word given multiple choice options within a passage). Data obtained from these measures were generally found to be internally consistent and stable with validity evidence varying across measures. Emerging evidence supports the utility of CBM for students who are DHH. Further empirical evidence is needed to continue to explore technical properties, identify if student scores are sensitive to growth over short periods of time, and examine whether CBM data can be used to inform instructional decision-making to improve student outcomes.

This study compared the reliability and validity of student scores from paper--pencil and e-based assessments using the "maze" and "silent reading fluency" (SRF) tasks. Forty students who were deaf and hard of hearing and reading between the second and fifth grade reading levels and their teachers (n = 21) participated. For maze, alternate form reliability coefficients obtained from correct scores and correct scores adjusted for guessing ranged from r = 0.61 to 0.84 (ps < 0.01); criterion-related validity coefficients ranged from r = 0.33 to 0.67 (most ps < 0.01). For SRF, reliability coefficients obtained from correct scores ranged from r = 0.50 to 0.75 (ps < 0.01); validity ranged from r = 0.25 to 0.72. Differences between student performance on paper-pencil and e-based conditions were generally non-significant for maze; significant differences between conditions for SRF favored the paper--pencil condition. Findings suggest that maze holds promise, with inconclusive results for SRF.

Telehealth has been utilized to provide behavioral services to families with children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other disabilities. This systematic review provides an update on current research pertaining to the use of telehealth to provide behavior analytic-based services and train caregivers in implementing behavioral procedures. This review also describes information on reported training components and caregivers' procedural fidelity. Empirical studies were collected from five databases. Overall, the studies provide evidence of the utility of telehealth as a service delivery model for providing behavior analytic-based services and for training caregivers to implement behavioral assessments and procedures. The authors discuss potential considerations for developing training packages and training caregivers via telehealth. Future research should use experimental methods to determine effective components for training individuals via telehealth to use behavioral procedures with good fidelity as well as to detect other factors that may influence procedural fidelity.

We examined the effects of a professional development (PD) system designed to support teachers' use of data-based instruction (DBI) to improve early writing outcomes for children with intensive needs. The PD system, called "DBI-TLC," provided tools for early writing assessment and intervention, learning modules including face-to-face workshops followed by classroom application, and ongoing coaching to support DBI implementation. Special education teachers in 19 classrooms in 2 Midwestern districts were assigned randomly to receive DBI-TLC or to a business-as-usual control group. All teachers completed pre- and posttests of DBI knowledge and skills and self-efficacy, and DBI-TLC teachers' fidelity to DBI was assessed. Fifty-three students (2 to 3 from each classroom) completed pre- and posttests of early writing using curriculum-based measures (CBM) and the Test of Early Written Language-3 (TEWL-3). DBI-TLC teachers outperformed controls at posttest on DBI knowledge and skills (Hedge's g = 2.88) and reported a more explicit writing instruction orientation compared to controls (g = 1.63). DBI fidelity varied (on average, 84% for assessment, 79% for intervention, and 52% for decision-making). Students whose teachers implemented DBI showed a pattern of stronger early writing performance compared to control students on CBM, with effect sizes of 0.23 to 0.40, but not on the TEWL-3 (0.02 to 0.13). We discuss the promise of DBI-TLC to improve teacher practice and student outcomes, as well as the need to continue to explore ways to support teachers' implementation of DBI with fidelity. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED595445.]

The purpose of this study was to investigate evidence of reliability, criterion validity, and grade-level differences of curriculum-based measures of writing (CBM-W) with 612 students in grades 1-3. Four scoring procedures (words written, words spelled correctly, correct word sequences, and correct minus incorrect word sequences) were used with two CBM-W tasks (picture-word and story prompt) during fall, winter, and spring of one academic year. A subsample of participants (n=244) were given a criterion measure in spring of the academic year. Pearson's r coefficients were calculated to determine evidence of alternate form reliability and criterion validity, and a MANOVA was used to detect significant growth within and across grade levels. Results indicated that scores on both CBM-W tasks had adequate reliability and validity coefficients in grades 2-3 and mixed results in grade 1. Significant growth was detected within and across all grades at each time point on each task. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Despite encouraging findings that show that interventions can improve students' math understanding, achievement gaps in math often persist or even widen for students who struggle. Practitioners play a significant role in closing these achievement gaps because they have the responsibility to select or design interventions. Practitioners may wish to consider factors that influence intervention effectiveness. This study evaluated numeracy interventions and explored how features of the studies and interventions may have influenced reported effects. Exploratory analyses revealed smaller effects when only distal measures were considered (g = 0.35; SE = 0.05), or when studies reported including more than 30 percent of participants as English learners (g = 0.44; SE = 0.12). Results also indicated variable effects across the same intervention programs. Implications for practitioners related to selecting interventions are discussed.

In this commentary, I highlight key insights from research on learning disabilities (LD) reported in this special issue. Authors of each article describe innovative work that is expanding frontiers of LD knowledge, by focusing on vulnerable and understudied populations, using multiple methodologies and data sources, and building and refining theory. Insights that emerge from this work relate to defining and identifying LD; estimating prevalence rates of LD subgroups; and understanding the role of cognitive, language, genetic, and environmental factors and their implications for assessment and intervention. I conclude that findings of this work promise to have a significant and lasting impact on the lives of children and youth with LD.

We examined the mean effect of teachers' use of data-based individualization (DBI) on the performance of students with intensive learning needs across academic areas and factors influencing the effects of DBI on student achievement. A total of 57 effect sizes from 14 studies were categorized into two comparisons: DBI Only (comparisons between DBI and a business-as-usual control) and DBI Plus (comparisons in which DBI implementers had access to additional information on student performance while they implemented DBI, compared to a control). The mean effect of DBI Only on student performance was g = 0.37; the mean effect of DBI Plus was g = 0.38. Differential effects of DBI were found depending on the nature of CBM tasks, frequency of CBM administration, and type and frequency of supports provided to teachers. Findings support the use of DBI to enhance student outcomes across academic areas.

The current study determined growth patterns during an 8-week writing intervention and then examined the association between growth pattern and students' initial skills as determined by instructional-level data. One hundred forty-seven first-grade students struggling with early literacy skills received a writing intervention at one of two tiers of support and completed progress assessments at regular intervals. Results indicated that students followed more than one type of growth pattern. A moderate correspondence was found between growth pattern and instructional-level data. Current results are contextualized within previous research. Implications for adapting writing interventions based on student data and theoretical models of writing development are discussed.

The purpose of this best evidence synthesis was to identify promising interventions that align with a theoretical model of early writing development, targeting three components of early writing: transcription, text generation, and self-regulation. We determined the extent to which these interventions are effective for children who struggle with early writing skills, by calculating effect sizes for group and single-subject designs, and we examined the overall quality of the research. Twenty-five studies met inclusion criteria. Among group design studies, mean effects (Hedge's g) ranged from 0.19 to 1.17 for measures of writing quantity and from 0.17 to 0.85 for measures of writing quality. Percentage of all nonoverlapping data for single-subject designs ranged from 83% to 100% for measures of writing quantity. Interventions with the strongest evidence of effects and highest methodological quality are described in detail. Recommendations for research and practice are provided. [To view the Grantee Submission of this article, see ED581496.]