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This project characterized the performance of Connected Vehicle Systems (CVS) on motorcycles based on two key components: global positioning and wireless communication systems. Considering that Global Positioning System (GPS) and 5.9 GHz Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) may be affected by motorcycle rider occlusion, antenna mounting configurations were investigated. In order to assess the performance of these systems, the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute’s (VTTI) Data Acquisition System (DAS) was utilized to record key GPS and DSRC variables from the vehicle’s CVS Vehicle Awareness Device (VAD). In this project, a total of four vehicles were used where one motorcycle had a forward mounted antenna, another motorcycle had a rear mounted antenna, and two automobiles had centermounted antennas. These instrumented vehicles were then subject to several static and dynamic test scenarios on closed test track and public roadways to characterize performance against each other. Further, these test scenarios took into account motorcycle rider occlusion, relative ranges, and diverse topographical roadway environments. From the results, both rider occlusion and approach ranges were shown to have an impact on communications performance. In situations where the antenna on the motorcycle had direct lineof-sight with another vehicle’s antenna, a noticeable increase in performance can be seen in comparison to situations where the line of sight is occluded. Further, the forward-mounted antenna configuration provided a wider span of communication ranges in open-sky. In comparison, the rear-mounted antenna configuration experienced a narrower communication range. In terms of position performance, environments where objects occluded the sky, such as deep urban and mountain regions, relatively degraded performance when compared to open sky environments were observed.

Crash warning systems have been deployed in the high-end vehicle market segment for some time and are trickling down to additional motor vehicle industry segments each year. The motorcycle segment, however, has no deployed crash warning system to date. With the active development of next generation crash warning systems based on connected vehicle technologies, this study explored possible interface designs for motorcycle crash warning systems and evaluated their rider acceptance and effectiveness in a connected vehicle context. Four prototype warning interface displays covering three warning mode alternatives (auditory, visual, and haptic) were designed and developed for motorcycles. They were tested on-road with three connected vehicle safety applications - intersection movement assist, forward collision warning, and lane departure warning - which were selected according to the most impactful crash types identified for motorcycles. It showed that a combination of warning modalities was preferred to a single display by 87.2% of participants and combined auditory and haptic displays showed considerable promise for implementation. Auditory display is easily implemented given the adoption rate of in-helmet auditory systems. Its weakness of presenting directional information in this study may be remedied by using simple speech or with the help of haptic design, which performed well at providing such information and was also found to be attractive to riders. The findings revealed both opportunities and challenges of visual displays for motorcycle crash warning systems. More importantly, differences among riders of three major motorcycle types (cruiser, sport, and touring) in terms of riders’ acceptance of a crash warning interface were revealed. Based on the results, recommendations were provided for an appropriate crash warning interface design for motorcycles and riders in a connected vehicle environment.

Visual attention is a key component of the driving task. Identifying times when the driver is not looking toward the forward views has been shown to be a successful indicator of distracted driving (Olson, Hanowski, Hickman, & Bocanegra, 2009). Previous technologies have successfully captured eye-glance location, but have come at great expense in terms of both cost and intrusiveness. This project explored the possibility of using a low cost and unobtrusive Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). Through data collected from the IMU, the aim was to identify vehicle kinematic signatures associated with times the driver is looking away from the forward view. Two methods were utilized. The first of the two methods relied on yaw rate anomalies to detect steering corrections. The second utilized the detection of sharp lateral accelerations which occurred as a result of corrective steering maneuvers. These methods both showed promise, as the yaw rate anomalies method and the lateral acceleration anomalies method both showed improved detection rates over the baseline.

This report describes the contents of the Roadway Epochs Database, which is a collection of tables providing indices for users to access vehicle data from the 100-Car and Second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2) Naturalistic Driving Studies based on the characteristics of the roadways traveled by study vehicles. This document is designed to give an overview of the organization of the tables as well as a brief introduction to the available vehicle and infrastructure data. The document opens with a section outlining intended uses and general information regarding the Roadway Epochs Database. The database contains 35 tables containing data from five state Departments of Transportation (DOTs), Nokia/Navteq, the SHRP 2 Roadway Information Database (RID), and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Office of Highway Performance Monitoring. Epochs of naturalistic data are tied to information such as the number of lanes, average annual daily traffic counts for heavy trucks and light vehicles, International Roughness Index scores, vehicle miles traveled, functional class, and identified features such as transition zones, frontage roads, bridges, and tunnels. The document closes with a few sample queries and a brief introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL).

Records of latitude and longitude pairs describing an approximate path of travel are logged by many types of Global Positioning System (GPS)-enabled devices. These logs of latitude/longitude (lat/lon) pairs specify geographic locations but include error inherent in the GPS system. Digital map data include representations of roads, trails, airways, etc., with links and nodes that are located geospatially but that also include error. The following report describes an algorithm for matching GPS points to the correct road link in digital map data by using road network connectivity. The algorithm was applied to the naturalistic driving data from the second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2), the largest naturalistic driving study to date. The data set from SHRP 2 consists of 5.5 million trips, which generated approximately 3.7 billion latitude/longitude pairs that needed to be matched to roads represented in digital maps. When identifying roads from GPS data at this scale, both the processing speed and the accuracy of the algorithm are important. To evaluate the output accuracy, a sample of 100 randomly selected trips was compared to a manual route identification. The results indicate that the algorithm assigned driving data to the correct link 91% of the time. When the driving data were not on a link, the algorithm correctly recognized this 86% of the time.

Presented at the Fourth International Symposium on Naturalistic Driving Research in Blacksburg, VA

The results of a survey of 424 motorcyclists are presented in order to provide information for motorcycle safety research. Survey questions address topics related to rider demographics, riding experience (years, mileage, and trip description), motorcycle characteristics, rider training, safety issues (maintenance, equipment, and crash data), and respondent interest (willingness, reasons for hesitation, and acceptable compensation). The respondents' interest in participating in an on-road motorcycle study is analyzed relative to the other questions, and deterrents to participation, as well as desired compensation, are also discussed in order to design such studies to encourage participation. Results of a cluster analysis are also presented to theorize possible categorizations of riders in terms of the collected variables. This information will be a useful starting block in the design and execution of motorcycle safety research.

Motorcycle-related research questions of interest to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) were reviewed. Instrumentation techniques and study procedures that have been used for light- and heavy-vehicle studies were adapted for use in answering the motorcycle-related questions. Three motorcyclists rode with instrumentation for a total of over 3,100 miles. The final data acquisition system and instrumentation recorded acceleration in three axes, yaw, pitch, roll, geographic location, rear-wheel speed, position in lane, turn-signal use, braking, range and closing speed to forward objects, and five video views. The sensor and video data were collected continuously while the bike was running. Development of helmet-mounted eye tracking and three dimensional head tracking instrumentation for use in naturalistic studies was attempted. Study components including recruiting, screening, questionnaires, and garage procedures were also tested. Analyses were conducted to illustrate possible uses of the data and to confirm the effectiveness of the adapted instrumentation. An independent evaluator reviewed the project, including the technical approach, instrumentation, data and questionnaires. Demonstration of motorcycle instrumentation that will support the majority of NHTS's motorcycle research questions was successful. Instrumentation for fine measurement of gaze location in naturalistic situations was not successful. Identification of coarse scan behavior and general areas where riders are looking (e.g., forward, left, right, down, rearward) was possible. United States. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Office of Behavioral Safety Research

By employing the functionality of GIS, code was written which allows for an automated process to compare the GPS data recorded in the naturalistic driving data with geographic map data from the U.S. Census Bureau and road data from various sources, such as state departments of transportation or other providers. Points recorded in the naturalistic driving data which fall outside the boundaries of the Census Bureau's urbanized Areas or urban Clusters are determined to be rural. The points are further evaluated to determine whether or not the vehicle was being driven on an interstate highway. Points that are determined to be rural and not on interstate highways are segments of interest in addressing the rural road crash problem. Brad R. Cannon, Shane B. McLaughlin and Jonathan M. Hankey

The purpose of this investigation is to identify factors associated with run-off-road (ROR) crashes. Events from the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study that constituted ROR crash or near-crash events were investigated to identify conditions in which the events occurred and contributing factors. ROR events occur more frequently per mile in low-visibility (including darkness) and low-friction conditions than in clear and dry conditions. Approximately half of the events (56%) occurred on straight roadways, with the remainder occurring in curves (30%) and intersection turns (14%). The most frequently identified contributing factor among the ROR events was distraction. Changes in roadway boundaries (e.g., discontinuities) also appear to be a common factor. Short following distances appear to be more commonly a factor than lead-vehicle braking. Other factors include fatigue/impairment, low friction, vehicle encroaching on the subject vehicle, low-speed maneuvering errors, and late route selection. United States. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Office of Human-Vehicle Performance Research

Collision avoidance systems (CASs) are being developed and fielded to reduce the number and severity of rear-end crashes. Kinematic algorithms within CASs evaluate sensor input and apply assumptions describing human-response timing and deceleration to determine when an alert should be presented. This dissertation presents an analytic assessment of dynamic function and performance CASs and associated driver performance for preventing automotive rear-end crashes. A method for using naturalistic data in the evaluation of CAS algorithms is described and applied to three algorithms. Time-series parametric data collected during 13 rear-end crashes and 70 near-crashes are input into models of collision avoidance algorithms to determine when the alerts would have occurred. Algorithm performance is measured by estimating how much of the driving population would be able to respond in the time available between when an alert would occur and when braking was needed. A sensitivity analysis was performed to consider the effect of alternative inputs into the assessment method. The algorithms were found to warn in sufficient time to permit 50–70% of the population to avoid collision in similar scenarios. However, the accuracy of this estimate was limited because the tested algorithms were found to alert too frequently to be feasible. The response of the assessment method was most sensitive to differences in assumed response-time distributions and assumed driver braking levels. Low-speed crashes were not addressed by two of the algorithms. Analysis of the events revealed that the necessary avoidance deceleration based on kinematics was generally less than 2 s in duration. At the time of driver response, the time remaining to avoid collision using a 0.5g average deceleration ranged from â 1.1 s to 2.1 s. In 10 of 13 crashes, no driver response deceleration was present. Mean deceleration for the 70 near-crashes was 0.37g and maximum was 0.72g. A set of the events was developed to measure driver response time. The mean driver response time was 0.7 s to begin braking and 1.1 s to reach maximum deceleration. Implications for collision countermeasures are considered, response-time results are compared to previous distributions and future work is discussed. Ph. D.

Occupational health and safety regulations in British Columbia prohibit the practice of exposing police to pepper spray in training. Previous research indicates that pepper spray exposure does not cause serious health problems; that traditional training methods are inadequate; and that exposing police to pepper spray in training enhances officer safety in the field. This study explored how exposure to pepper spray in training affects officer safety. To accomplish this, patrol and traffic personnel from independent municipal police forces in British Columbia were surveyed and interviewed. Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed that exposure to pepper spray in training enhances the physical performance, decision making, confidence, and knowledge of police when they are exposed in the field; enhances officer safety during non-sanctioned exposures; and does not cause serious health problems. These findings suggest that police training should feature exposure to a variety of less-lethal weapons.

This volume, an executive summary of the Enhanced Night Visibility project, is the first of 18 volumes that report on the project's evaluation of the merit of implementing supplemental ultraviolet headlamps, supplemental infrared systems, and other vision enhancement systems (VESs) to enhance drivers' nighttime roadway safety. The entire project evaluated 18 VESs in terms of their ability to provide object detection and recognition. Objects included scenarios with pedestrians standing or walking in different locations on the roadway. Pedestrians were dressed in black, white, or blue clothing to produce varying levels of contrast with their surroundings. Detection and recognition testing took place in clear weather, rain, snow, and fog conditions. Project research also evaluated a subset of the VESs for their effect on drivers' disability and discomfort glare. The VESs were also tested for their value in facilitating drivers' detection of pavement markings and other traffic control devices. The results indicated that supplemental ultraviolet headlamps do not provide sufficient benefit to justify further testing; however, supplemental infrared vision enhancement systems do offer an improvement over headlamps alone for detection of pedestrians. Near infrared systems have the potential to provide an added benefit in detecting pedestrians in inclement weather, but the implementation of NIR technology is the key to achieving this benefit. United States. Federal Highway Administration. Office of Safety R&D

Phase III-- Study 1 was performed to further explore findings on far infrared (FIR) systems from Phase II, to investigate near infrared (NIR) and high intensity discharge (HID) technologies, and to investigate detection and recognition of retroreflective infrastructure components. The empirical testing for this study was performed at the Virginia Smart Road testing facility during clear weather conditions. A total of 18 participants were involved in the study. A 6 by 3 by 17 mixed-factorial design was used to investigate the effects of 6 different types of vision enhancement systems, 3 age groups, and 17 object presentations on detection and recognition distances; subjective evaluations were obtained for the different systems as well. The results of the empirical testing suggest that infrared (IR) systems, when designed correctly, can provide pedestrian detection benefit in clear weather, particularly for pedestrians in dark clothing and veiled in the glare of oncoming headlamps. A wider field of view display appears to facilitate detection in curves of 1,250-m radius. Retroreflective objects may be detected earlier in an NIR display, but require direct visual observation to recognize the object or read signage. HID systems did not provide detection benefit over the baseline halogen headlamps tested. United States. Federal Highway Administration. Office of Safety R&D

In comparison to conventional cruise control, adaptive cruise control (ACC) vehicles are capable of sensing forward traffic and slowing to accommodate as necessary. When no forward vehicles are present, ACC function is the same as conventional cruise control. However, with ACC, when a slower vehicle is detected, the ACC system will decelerate and follow at a selected time-based distance. While slowing to follow, the driver will experience a system-controlled deceleration of the ACC vehicle. An experiment was conducted to evaluate driver preferences for the distance at which the primary deceleration occurs and the level of deceleration that is obtained. Driver intervention was required in one trial and driver response behavior was measured. Ten men and ten women in two age groups evaluated the decelerations from a cruise speed of 70mph to a following speed of 55mph behind a confederate lead vehicle on the highway. Evaluations can be made using four scales: Good vs. Bad, Comfortable vs. Uncomfortable, Jerky vs. Smooth, and Early vs. Late. Decelerations of approximately 0.06g which occur approximately 200ft to 250ft behind the lead vehicle were most preferred. Prior to intervention, foot position ranged from a point directly below the brake pedal to 16.4in from the brake pedal. Foot motion began between 21.12s time-to-collision (TTC) and 3.97s TTC. Eighty percent of the participants paused to "cover" the brake before final motion to activate the brake. The older age group intervened (braked) later than the younger age group. Driver braking after intervention ranged from 0.16g to 0.32g. Master of Science

Occupational health and safety regulations in British Columbia prohibit the practice of exposing police to pepper spray in training. Previous research indicates that pepper spray exposure does not cause serious health problems; that traditional training methods are inadequate; and that exposing police to pepper spray in training enhances officer safety in the field. This study explored how exposure to pepper spray in training affects officer safety. To accomplish this, patrol and traffic personnel from independent municipal police forces in British Columbia were surveyed and interviewed. Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed that exposure to pepper spray in training enhances the physical performance, decision making, confidence, and knowledge of police when they are exposed in the field; enhances officer safety during non-sanctioned exposures; and does not cause serious health problems. These findings suggest that police training should feature exposure to a variety of less-lethal weapons.