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Se utilizó un reactor de plasma de antorcha para la obtención de fertilizantes termofosfatos (TPIZA y TPPC) sometiendo la roca fosfórica (PR) de la región centro oriente del departamento de Boyacá, Colombia, proveniente de los municipios de Iza y Sogamoso, a calcinación mediante plasma de antorcha. Se utilizó un equipo de antorcha de plasma de 7.6 kW (potencia nominal) con temperaturas de proceso > 10000 ° C, tamaño de partícula de 0.074 mm y tiempos de calcinación de 30 s - 40 s. Como resultado experimental se obtuvieron concentraciones máximas de fósforo total y fósforo asimilable correspondientes a 27.0% P2O5 y 3.07% P2O5 a partir de termofosfatos de Iza (TPTP - IZA) mientras que los resultados para los termofosfatos de Sogamoso (TPTP - PC) fueron 33.12% P2O5 y 4.83 % P2O5. Los análisis de fósforo total se realizaron por fluorescencia de rayos X (FRX) y para la determinación del fósforo asimilable se realizó primero la extracción con solución neutra de citrato de amonio y posteriormente la determinación cuantitativa por espectrofotometría UV - Vis. Mediante difracción de rayos X (DRX), se determinó que la fase cristalina predominante fue el carbonato de fluorapatita, que osciló entre 53.0% - 87.0% (TPTP - IZA) y 60.6% - 93.7% (TFTP - PC). Los costes energéticos de los fertilizantes obtenidos reportaron un consumo energético muy bajo, del orden de 0.64 kWh / Kg – 1.14 kWh / Kg, al utilizar intensidades eléctricas de 30 A y 45 A.

En marzo de 2021 se tuvo noticia del encallamiento de la embarcación Ever Given de bandera panameña, operada por la naviera taiwanesa Evergreen Marine, que transitaba por el canal de Suez, proveniente de China con destino Rotterdam; embarcación que quedó atravesada en el canal, obstruyendo completamente el tránsito marítimo por esa importante arteria comercial. El canal ha sido objeto de tensión entre las potencias comerciales y políticas en el ámbito mundial y su inoperatividad; en este caso como consecuencia de un accidente marítimo, obligaba a las embarcaciones a tomar otra ruta rodeando todo el continente africano, en un trayecto adicional bastante extenso y provisto de aguas con altas mareas en el cabo de Buena Esperanza, en el sur del continente, lo que lo hace un viaje mucho más extenso, con mayor consumo de combustible y bastante azaroso desde el punto de vista de los riesgos asociados a la navegación marítima.

Este trabajo pretende documentar el aprovechamiento de roca fosfórica para la obtención de termofosfatos a partir de fuentes de fosforita provenientes de los municipios de Iza y Sogamoso, Boyacá. El informe de la IFA indica que la demanda global de fertilizantes en relación con el P2O5 fue de 45,4 Mt en 2019, y las perspectivas de los fosfatos para la obtención de productos podrían llegar a 112 Mt para el año 2022. Para lograr este objetivo, se reporta el método de calcinación en horno eléctrico como una de las técnicas más comunes para la concentración de P2O5. En tal sentido se aplicó un diseño de experimentos factorial 23, con dos niveles (bajo y alto) y tres factores: temperatura (900°C y 1200°C), tiempo de calcinación (3 y 5 horas) y fuente del mineral (RFIZA y RFPC); el tamaño de partícula (≤0,149 mm) se mantuvo constante. Los resultados obtenidos muestran un incremento de la concentración de fósforo en las muestras procesadas, especialmente las que fueron sometidas a mayores tiempos de calcinación y mayores temperaturas.

Objectives In this systematic review, we synthesize the current evidence on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) for the two of the most relevant outcomes of Zika virus infection in humans, microcephaly and Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS). Methods We searched the following databases: MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, LILACS, WHO's ICTRP clinical trials registries database and PROSPERO. Search terms included quality of life, microcephaly, and Guillain-Barre Syndrome. We included primary studies where HRQoL was quantitatively assessed for microcephaly and GBS using validated instruments. We used the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Tools to assess the risk of bias of individual studies. Results From a total of 1,657 abstracts screened and 66 full texts reviewed, 21 studies met the eligibility criteria; one study for microcephaly and 20 for GBS. Adjusted disutilities for microcephaly compared to a normative childhood utility ranged from −0.745 to −0.820. For GBS, time traded-off the expected lifetime ranged from 16 days to 3 years. HRQoL follows the clinical course of GBS, with lower scores in the first months, recovery within the first year post onset, and stabilization after one year. Conclusions Included studies reported a wide range of HRQoL for GBS, due in part to a high level of heterogeneity in methods, inclusion criteria, follow-up and reporting of results. Opportunities exist for primary studies assessing the longitudinal HRQoL over the entire course of the diseases to inform clinical practice, economic evaluations and health policy.

Background The global impact of Zika virus in Latin America has drawn renewed attention to circulating mosquito-borne viruses in this region, such as dengue and chikungunya. Our objective was to assess socio-ecological factors associated with Aedes mosquito vector density as a measure of arbovirus transmission risk in three cities of potentially recent Zika virus introduction: Ibagué, Colombia; Manta, Ecuador; and Posadas, Argentina, in order to inform disease mitigation strategies. Methods We sampled Aedes mosquito populations in a total of 1086 households, using indoor and peridomestic mosquito collection methods, including light traps, resting traps, traps equipped with chemical attractant and aspirators. For each sampled household, we collected socio-economic data using structured questionnaires and data on microenvironmental conditions using iButton data loggers. Results A total of 3230 female Aedes mosquitoes were collected, of which 99.8% were Aedes aegypti and 0.2% were Aedes albopictus. Mean female Aedes mosquito density per household was 1.71 (standard deviation: 2.84). We used mixed-effects generalized linear Poisson regression analyses to identify predictors of Aedes density, using month, neighborhood and country as random-effects variables. Across study sites, the number of household occupants [incidence rate ratio (IRR): 1.08, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01–1.14], presence of entry points for mosquitoes into the household (IRR: 1.51, 95% CI: 1.30–1.76) and presence of decorative vegetation (IRR: 1.52, 95% CI: 1.22–1.88) were associated with higher Aedes density; while being in the highest wealth tertile of household wealth (IRR: 0.78, 95% CI: 0.66–0.92), knowledge of how arboviruses are transmitted (IRR: 0.94, 95% CI: 0.89–1.00) and regular emptying of water containers by occupants (IRR: 0.79, 95% CI: 0.67–0.92) were associated with lower Aedes density. Conclusions Our study addresses the complexities of arbovirus vectors of global significance at the interface between human and mosquito populations. Our results point to several predictors of Aedes mosquito vector density in countries with co-circulation of multiple Aedes-borne viruses, and point to modifiable risk factors that may be useful for disease prevention and control. Graphical Abstract

Background The global impact of Zika virus in Latin America and the Caribbean has drawn renewed attention to circulating mosquito-borne viruses in this region, such as dengue and chikungunya. Our objective was to assess socio-ecological factors associated with Aedes mosquito vector density as a measure of arboviral transmission risk in three cities of potential recent Zika virus introduction: Ibagué, Colombia; Manta, Ecuador; and Posadas, Argentina, in order to inform disease mitigation strategies. Methods We monitored Aedes mosquito populations over 12 months starting in 2018 in a total of 1,086 randomly selected households, using indoor and peridomestic mosquito collection methods. For each sampled household, we collected socio-economic data using structured questionnaires and data on microenvironmental conditions using iButton data loggers. Results A total of 3,230 female Aedes mosquitoes were collected, of which 99.8% were Ae. aegypti and 0.2% were Ae. albopictus. Mean female Aedes spp. mosquito abundance per household was 1.71. We modeled the interaction between neighborhood and household wealth profiles, and found significantly lower Aedes density in highest compared to lowest and middle wealth households, although the effect differed by level of neighborhood wealth. We used mixed-effects Poisson regression analyses to identify predictors of Aedes density, using month, neighborhood, and country as random-effect variables. Across study sites, the number of household occupants (Incidence rate ratio, IRR = 1.08), presence of entry points for mosquitoes into the household (IRR = 1.51), and presence of decorative vegetation (IRR = 1.52) were associated with higher Aedes density; while being in the highest wealth tertile of household wealth (IRR = 0.78), knowledge of how arboviruses are transmitted (IRR = 0.94) and regular emptying of water containers by occupants (IRR = 0.79) were associated with lower Aedes density. Conclusions Our study addresses the complexities of arbovirus vectors of global significance at the interface between society and the environment. Our results point to several determinants of Aedes mosquito vector density in countries with co-circulation of multiple Aedes-borne viruses, and could help us identify targets of practical intervention for disease prevention and control.

The World Health Organization (WHO) declared coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) a global pandemic on 11 March 2020. In Ecuador, the first case of COVID-19 was recorded on 29 February 2020. Despite efforts to control its spread, SARS-CoV-2 overran the Ecuadorian public health system, which became one of the most affected in Latin America on 24 April 2020. The Hospital General del Sur de Quito (HGSQ) had to transition from a general to a specific COVID-19 health center in a short period of time to fulfill the health demand from patients with respiratory afflictions. Here, we summarized the implementations applied in the HGSQ to become a COVID-19 exclusive hospital, including the rearrangement of hospital rooms and a triage strategy based on a severity score calculated through an artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted chest computed tomography (CT). Moreover, we present clinical, epidemiological, and laboratory data from 75 laboratory tested COVID-19 patients, which represent the first outbreak of Quito city. The majority of patients were male with a median age of 50 years. We found differences in laboratory parameters between intensive care unit (ICU) and non-ICU cases considering C-reactive protein, lactate dehydrogenase, and lymphocytes. Sensitivity and specificity of the AI-assisted chest CT were 21.4% and 66.7%, respectively, when considering a score >70%; regardless, this system became a cornerstone of hospital triage due to the lack of RT-PCR testing and timely results. If health workers act as vectors of SARS-CoV-2 at their domiciles, they can seed outbreaks that might put 1,879,047 people at risk of infection within 15 km around the hospital. Despite our limited sample size, the information presented can be used as a local example that might aid future responses in low and middle-income countries facing respiratory transmitted epidemics.

Chikungunya was introduced into the Americas in 2015 causing a pandemic across the continent. Testing during the acute phase of infection relies on qRT-PCR, but available assays have a number of limitations. A qRT-PCR assay specific to the chikungunya E1 gene was designed using sequence data from contemporary strains. A probit analysis established the 95% limit of detection as 19.6 copies per reaction. We compared the assay with a US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) chikungunya qRT-PCR as the reference standard. The assay had a sensitivity and specificity of 98.4% and 100% in 90 samples retrospectively collected in Guatemala. In a further 74 febrile samples prospectively collected in Ecuador and Guatemala the test had a sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 98.4%, respectively. Sequencing the nsp4 gene of the discordant positive sample indicated the presence of chikungunya RNA, and mismatches to the primer binding sites of the CDC assay.

Objectives. (1) Provide regional governments, institutions, and professionals with local and accurate information on the prevalence of ear and hearing disorders in the Ecuadorian population. (2) Contribute to the global burden of disease by generating standardized data that can be compared among countries and regions. Method. This was a prospective multistage cluster sample design study. Population tested included all members of households selected according to the sample strategy (cluster sample design). Testing was carried out in hospital facilities across the country including audiometry/TEAOEs and otological examination. Results. 5762 subjects were tested, with a global prevalence of hearing disability of 5% with a 95% CI of 3.9% a 6.1%. Out of the total population tested 14.52% are in need of action or services. Conclusions. The prevalence of disablility in hearing correlates with the prevalence found in other studies using the same protocol. The Ecuadorian population is in need of a substantial improvement in hearing services delivery.

El presente trabajo, de corte transversal, describe características y tendencias de los trabajos relacionados con las ciencias de la salud (CS) publicados en Ecuador durante el período 1999-2009. Su objetivo es contribuir al diseño e implementación de una política de investigación y desarrollo que centre sus esfuerzos en las prioridades de salud del país. Para el análisis se utilizaron indicadores bibliométricos de producción aplicados a las publicaciones científicas en CS de Ecuador, contenidas en las bases de datos LILACS y MEDLINE. Se halló que durante 1999-2009 se publicaron 625 artículos, observándose un predominio de las áreas clínico-quirúrgicas (60%) seguidas de la epidemiología (17,4%), las ciencias básicas (14,1%) y los sistemas de salud (8,5%). De todo lo producido durante ese período, solo 4,3% y 7,2% estaban relacionados con las principales causas de morbilidad y mortalidad, respectivamente. Se encontró que las instituciones privadas generaron más investigación en salud que las públicas, y los hospitales (públicos, privados y mixtos) en mayor proporción que las universidades. Del análisis realizado se puede decir que la producción científica en CS en Ecuador durante 1999-2009 ha sido escasa, con un leve repunte en los dos últimos años, que en parte podría explicarse por el aumento en la inversión en investigación y desarrollo a través de la Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (SENACYT), la cual entre 2006 y 2009 pasó de 0,20% a 0,44% del producto interno bruto.This cross-sectional study describes the characteristics and trends of health sciences-related studies published in Ecuador from 1999-2009. Its objective is to contribute to the design and implementation of a research and development policy whose work is centered on the country's health priorities. Bibliometric indicators of production applied to publications in health sciences in Ecuador were used for the analysis. The publications were from the LILACS and MEDLINE databases. It was found that 625 articles were published from 1999-2009, primarily in the clinical-surgical areas (60%), followed by epidemiology (17.4%), basic sciences (14.1%), and health systems (8.5%). Only 4.3% and 7.2% of the production in this period was related to the primary causes of morbidity and mortality, respectively. It was found that private institutions generated more health research than public institutions, and hospitals (public, private, and mixed) produced a higher percentage than universities. The analysis showed that there was limited scientific production in health sciences in Ecuador during the study period, with a slight increase in the last two years that may be due in part to greater investment in research and development by the National Secretariat of Science and Technology (SENACYT). Investment increased from 0.20% to 0.44% of gross domestic product between 2006 and 2009.

A new group of chiral monodentate diamidophosphite ligands (2 P−N/1 P−O bond) based on diazaphospholidine backbones derived from N,N′-dibenzylcyclohexane-1,2-diamine (7) and N,N′-dimethylcyclohexan...

La presencia de represas hidroeléctricas ha sido asociada a grandes alteraciones ambientales y pueden tener un efecto en la transmisión de enfermedades parasitarias y vectoriales como la malaria, la leishmaniasis, la oncocercosis, enfermedades arbovirales y otras consecuencias para la salud. En el 2009, se inicia la construcción de la central hidroeléctrica Toachi-Pilatón y en este estudio reportamos un muestreo entomológico preliminar de insectos Dípteros Nematóceros de interés médico colectados en varias localidades cerca de la construcción de la represa. La presencia de al menos dos especies de anofelinos (Anopheles neivai y An. Albimanus) y de al menos una especie de flebótomos (Lutzomyia trapidoi), incriminados en el pasado como vectores de malaria y leishmaniasis respectivamente, indican el riesgo potencial de transmisión de estas enfermedades. Algunas especies de las arenillas del género Culicoides también están presentes. La abundancia de moscas negras del género Simulium cerca de ríos y riachuelos constituyen una real molestia a los trabajadores del campo y habitantes por sus picaduras. Los resultados de una encuesta epidemiológica piloto en dos poblaciones cercanas (Praderas del Toachi y Palo Quemado) indican que aunque la mayoría de los habitantes conocen de estos insectos, pocos están al tanto de las enfermedades que pueden transmitir y muy pocos utilizan mosquiteros. Se recomienda hacer seguimiento de estos resultados con nuevos estudios en el futuro para medir el efecto de la presencia de esta represa en la transmisión de enfermedades vectoriales y en las poblaciones de vectores en la zona.

This study characterizes a measles outbreak which occurred in Ecuador in 2011–2012, analyzing data from 3700 suspected cases of measles reported to Ecuador’s Ministry of Public Health. The study population had a large age range and included 333 confirmed cases of measles. The greatest number of cases were found in the

Staphylococcus aureus is a frequent cause of nosocomial pneumonia and bacteremia worldwide. Classical and molecular epidemiology approaches were used to study a S. aureus outbreak in the intensive care unit (ICU) of one of the largest public hospitals in Quito. Staphylococcus aureus isolates from 17 patients and 19 potential carriers from the staff were collected from March 2007 to February 2008 and analyzed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) to determine their clonal relationships. During this period the hospital reported 16 cases of hospital-acquired staphylococcal pneumonia and an apparent outbreak occurred from June to September 2007. DNA from these isolates formed six different PFGE patterns: four clonal groups, and two groups of clonally related isolates. Molecular typing failed to identify any staphylococcal reservoir among staff members. The current study suggested that a staphylococcal outbreak that occurred in the summer of 2007 was caused by different bacterial clones, although some clones were shared by two patients. Historical analysis of the staphylococcal infections in the ICU showed a higher incidence during the summer months, which coincided with the programmed personnel shift. This observation suggests that outbreaks might be produced by the introduction of improperly trained personnel.

The immune response after early exposure to or infection with Onchocerca volvulus was investigated in an autochthonous focus caused by the migration of infected persons to a previously unaffected area in Ecuador. Peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) proliferative and cytokine responses (interferon [IFN]-gamma and interleukin [IL]-5) to filarial antigens were measured in 14 subjects with serologic evidence of exposure and in 7 subjects with evidence of dermal microfilarial DNA and were compared with responses in 43 subjects with chronic O. volvulus infections. PBMC proliferative and cytokine responses (IFN-gamma and IL-5) to parasite antigens were elevated in the early exposure/infection group, compared with those in the chronic infection group. Addition of an IL-10-neutralizing antibody to filaria antigen-stimulated cultures resulted in significantly elevated proliferative responses in the chronic infection group. The findings suggest that early exposure and early parasite patency are associated with a vigorous cellular response, but, as infections become chronic, the cellular response becomes down-regulated, partly through an IL-10-dependent mechanism.

The prevalence of onchocerciasis infection was determined in communities on 7 rivers located in the northern area of the canton San Lorenzo province of Esmeraldas. Diagnosis of the infection was obtained by skin biopsies and recombinant antigen-based serology. No evidence of infection was detected in 9 communities studied along the Rio Mataje which forms the frontier between Ecuador and Colombia nor in 10 adjacent communities located on 5 interior rivers. Evidence for Onchocerca volvulus infection was found in 4 communities on the Rio Tululvi with the following prevalence: La Boca (3.5% by biopsy and 3.9% by serology) Guayabal (9.1% by both biopsy and serology) La Ceiva (51.5% by biopsy and 53% by serology) and Salidero (4% by biopsy and 7.7% by serology). A few individuals in these communities were seropositive for O. volvulus in the absence of detectable dermal microfilariae: these might harbor very light or prepatent infections. No clinical disease attributable to onchocerciasis was found. The infected communities will be included in the ivermectin-based National Control Program for the disease with no evidence of the infection having extended north of the Ecuadorian/Colombian border. (authors)

La leptospirosis y dengue son enfermedades que presentan una sintomatología muy similar y ocurren durante las épocas lluviosas. El propósito del presente trabajo fue investigar la frecuencia de leptospirosis en la población de los barrios marginales de Guayaquil y el grado de dificultad que existe para distinguir clínicamente leptospirosis de dengue. Muestras de sangre de pacientes febriles provenientes de los barrios pobres de Guayaquil fueron colectadas durante la estación lluviosa del año 2008. Las muestras se sometieron a análisis de ELISA IgM para dengue y leptospirosis. Adicionalmente se obtuvieron datos retrospectivos (2003-2007) de historias clínicas de pacientes que acudieron a uno de los hospitales públicos más grandes de Guayaquil. De un total de 135 pacientes febriles, 15 (11.1%) fueron positivos a leptospirosis por ELISA, 36 (26.7%) fueron positivos a dengue, 3 (2.2%) fueron positivos a ambos patógenos y 81 (60%) fueron negativos para los dos. Sin embargo, 60% de los pacientes diagnosticados clínicamente como dengue tuvieron anticuerpos contra Leptospira y no para dengue y 25% pacientes diagnosticados como leptospirosis tuvieron anticuerpos contra el virus de dengue y no para Leptospira. Adicionalmente, los archivos hospitalarios (2003-2007) indicaron que 72.8% de los pacientes diagnosticados clínicamente como dengue tuvieron anticuerpos contra Leptospira y carecían de anticuerpos contra virus de dengue. Los resultados sugieren que ambas enfermedades son frecuentemente identificadas erróneamente lo que representa un problema grave de salud pública pues ambas enfermedades requieren un tratamiento médico completamente distinto.

To investigate whether helminth infections may affect the efficacy of vaccines by impairing the immune response to nonparasite vaccine antigens, we compared the antibody responses to tetanus toxoid (TT) after tetanus vaccination in 193 subjects with Onchocerca volvulus infection with 85 comparable noninfected controls. After vaccination, the proportions of subjects in each group attaining protective levels of antitetanus antibodies were similar (96.9% infected versus 97.6% noninfected). Postvaccination increases in antitetanus immunoglobulin G (IgG) and the predominant IgG isotype, IgG1, were equivalent in both groups, as were increases in specific IgG4 and IgE; however, significantly greater increases in specific IgG2 ( P < 0.05) and IgG3 ( P < 0.001) were observed in the noninfected group. Stratification of the O. volvulus -infected group into two groups representing light and heavy infections revealed a significantly impaired antitetanus IgG response in those with heavy infections compared to those with light infections ( P < 0.01) or no infection ( P < 0.05). The impact of concurrent intestinal helminth infections on the antitetanus response was also examined; an increased IgG4/IgE ratio was seen in those infected with Strongyloides stercoralis ( P < 0.05) and when all helminth infections were combined as a single group ( P < 0.05). These findings indicate that concurrent infection with O. volvulus does not prevent the development of a protective antitetanus response, although heavier O. volvulus infections are able to alter the magnitude of this response, and concurrent helminth infections ( O. volvulus and intestinal helminths) may alter TT-specific antibody isotype responses.

Se evaluó la importancia de los factores raciales en la epidemiología y las manifestaciones clínicas de la oncocercosis en la raza Negra y la raza indígena Chachi, dos grupos étnicos diferentes del área hiperendémica del foco oncocercótico ecuatoriano. Los Chachi presentaron una significativa mayor densidad de microfilarias en la piel. De los Negros, 72,2% presentaron lesiones oncocercóticas en la piel comparado con 56,4% en los Chachi. Se encontró mayor prevalencia de nódulos palpables en los Chachi (51,4% vs. 43,0%). La presencia de microfilarias en la cámara anterior del ojo fue más frecuente en los Chachi (51,9% vs. 34,2%), pero se evidenció una mayor prevalencia de corioretinitis y atrofia del nervio óptico en los Negros (17,6% vs 11,2% y 8,5% vs. 0,5%, respectivamente) The importance of racial factors in the epidemiology and clinical manifestations of onchocercosis in the Afro-Ecuadorian and Chachi indigenous races, two distinct ethnic groups in the hyperendemic area of the Ecuadorian onchocercal focus, were evaluated. No difference in the disease prevalence among the two races was noted, although the Chachi had a significant higher dermal microfilariae intensity. Approximately 72.2% of the Afro-Ecuadorians presented with onchocercal skin lesions, as compared to 56.4% of the Chachi. Pretibial depigmentation, sowdah, scrotal elephantiasis and hydrocele were only documented in the Afro-Ecuadorians. Greater prevalence of palpable nodules was found in the Chachi (51.4% vs. 43.0%). Chachi presented with more nodules in the head (25.6% vs 17.6%) and iliac crest (40.1% vs. 30.3%) regions while the Blacks had more nodules in the sacrococcygeal region (18.2% vs 10.8%). Microfilariae in the anterior chamber was seen more frequently in the Chachi (51.9% vs 34.2%). However, a higher prevalence of chorioretinitis and optic atrophy was seen in the Afro-Ecuadorians (17.6% vs 11.2% and 8.5% vs 0.5% respectively). Several possible causes for these differences are discussed

Human bartonellosis was investigated in the Ecuadorian province of Zamora Chinchipe; 17 cases were identified retrospectively from hospital records over the period 1984-1995, mostly from 6 communities in the provincial district of Zumba. A questionnaire concerning risk factors for disease transmission was administered in these 6 communities. Blood samples were taken from individuals with current febrile illnesses or skin lesions suggestive of bartonellosis. Samples for detection of Bartonella bacilliformis were also taken from all school-age children in communities where historical cases had been identified by questionnaire. No bacteriologically positive case was identified and no evidence of asymptomatic infection was detected. Risk factors for disease transmission, identified by the questionnaire, included the presence of sick or dying chickens and guinea-pigs. It was suggested that bartonellosis is a zoonosis with wild animals, probably rodents, as the reservoir. The widespread use of residual insecticides and the easy availability of antibiotics is likely to have modified the epidemiology of this disease over the last decade.