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Chemical herding agents are surfactant mixtures used to coalesce spilled oil and increase slick thickness to facilitate mechanical recovery or in situ burning. Only two herders are currently listed on the United States' National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan or National Contingency Plan product schedule for potential use in spill response: the surface collecting agents Siltech OP-40™ and ThickSlick 6535™. Toxicity data for spill response agents are frequently available only for two estuarine species, mysid shrimp (Americamysis bahia) and inland silversides (Menidia beryllina), and are particularly limited for herding agents. Toxicity can vary over several orders of magnitude across product type and species, even within specific categories of spill response agents. Seven aquatic species were tested with both Siltech OP-40™ and ThickSlick 6535™ to evaluate acute herder toxicity and relative species sensitivity. The toxicity assessment included: acute tests with A. bahia and M. beryllina, the freshwater crustacean Ceriodaphina dubia, and the freshwater fish Pimephales promelas; development of the echinoderm Arbacia unctulate; and growth of a freshwater alga Raphidocelis subcapitata and marine alga Dunaliella tertiolecta. Siltech acute toxicity values ranged from 1.1 to 32.8 ppm. ThickSlick acute toxicity values ranged from 2.2 to 126.4 ppm. The results of present study show greater toxicity of Siltech compared to ThickSlick with estimated acute hazard concentrations intended to provide 95% species protection of 1.1 and 3.6 ppm, respectively, on empirical data and 0.64 and 3.3 ppm, respectively, with the addition of interspecies correlation data. The present study provides a greater understanding of species sensitivity of these two oil spill response agents. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1311-1318. © 2022 SETAC. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

There is evidence that the combination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) released in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill impairs the glucocorticoid stress response of vertebrates in the Gulf of Mexico, but the mechanisms are unclear. We hypothesized that inhibition of cortisol release may be due to 1) overstimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-inter-renal (HPI) axis, or 2) an inhibition of cortisol biosynthesis through PAH activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Using a flow-through system, Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta) were continuously exposed to control conditions or one of 3 environmentally relevant concentrations of PAHs from Deepwater Horizon oil (∑PAH50 = 0-3 μg L-1 ) for up to 7 d. One group of toadfish was then exposed to a recovery period for up to 7 d. No changes in corticotrophin-releasing factor mRNA expression, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), or pituitary mass suggested that overstimulation of the HPI axis was not a factor. The AhR activation was measured by an elevation of cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A) mRNA expression within the HPI axis in fish exposed to high PAH concentrations; however, CYP1A was no longer induced after 3 d of recovery in any of the tissues. At 7 d of recovery, there was an impairment of cortisol release in response to an additional simulated predator chase that does not appear to be due to changes in the mRNA expression of the kidney steroidogenic pathway proteins steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage, and 11β-hydroxylase. Future analyses are needed to determine whether the stress response impairment is due to cholesterol availability and/or down-regulation of the melanocortin 2 receptor. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:1062-1074. © 2020 SETAC.

Benthic organisms may be exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in marine sediments as the result of oil spills. PAH photoinduced toxicity, which has been documented in a wide range of early life stage (ELS) aquatic biota, is a phenomenon by which ultraviolet (UV) radiation potentiates the toxicity of photodynamic PAHs (often leading to mortality). Fiddler crabs (Uca longisignalis) are important ecosystem engineers that influence biogeochemical cycles via burrowing. As gravid females burrow, their eggs may bioaccumulate PAHs from contaminated sediments, leading to in ovo exposure. Consequently, free-swimming larvae exposed to intense UV may be at risk for photoinduced toxicity. In the present study, mature fiddler crabs were bred on oiled sediments contaminated via simulated tidal flux. Gravid females were transferred to clean water after 10 days, and larvae were collected at hatch. While in ovo exposures to oil alone did not affect survival, offspring that were subsequently exposed to full spectrum sunlight in clean water experienced significant mortality that corresponded with in ovo exposures to sediments containing ≥1455 μg/kg tPAH50. Results presented here provide evidence for the potential of photoinduced toxicity to occur in benthic organisms with free-swimming early life stages.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous contaminants that can be responsible for a variety of deleterious effects on organisms. These adverse outcomes are relatively well studied, but at concentrations rarely found in the environment. Among the documented effects of sublethal acute PAH exposure are reductions in osmoregulatory capacity and immune function, and changes in the function of critical metabolic organs such as the liver. Gulf toadfish (Opsanus beta) were exposed to control seawater (0.006 µg tPAH50 /L) or water accommodated fractions of Deepwater Horizon spill oil diluted to 3 flow-through exposure regimes (0.009, 0.059, and 2.82 µg tPAH50 /L) for 7 d, with a recovery period of equal duration. We hypothesized that these chronic exposures would induce the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-mediated pathways and result in significant impacts on markers of osmoregulatory, immune, and metabolic function. We further hypothesized that measurable reversal of these impacts would be observed during the recovery period. Our results indicate that activation of cytochrome P 450 (CYP)1A1 was achieved during exposure and reversed during the recovery phase. The only significant deviations from controls measured were a reduction in plasma glucose in fish exposed to medium and high levels of PAH after 7 d of exposure and a reduction in plasma osmolality fish exposed to high levels of PAHs after 7 d of recovery, when CYP1A1 messenger (m)RNA levels had returned to control levels. Our study illustrates a disconnect between the activation of CYP1A1 in response to environmentally realistic PAHs concentrations and several physiological endpoints and supports the idea that the AhR might not be associated with mediating osmoregulatory, immune, and metabolic changes in Gulf toadfish. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:1075-1086. © 2020 SETAC.

Benthic organisms may be exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in marine sediments as the result of oil spills. PAH photoinduced toxicity, which has been documented in a wide range of early life stage (ELS) aquatic biota, is a phenomenon by which ultraviolet (UV) radiation potentiates the toxicity of photodynamic PAHs (often leading to mortality). Fiddler crabs

A portion of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill extended beyond the satellite footprint and contained toxic oil concentrations., Major oil spills are catastrophic events that immensely affect the environment and society, yet determining their spatial extent is a highly complex task. During the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) blowout, ~149,000 km2 of the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) was covered by oil slicks and vast areas of the Gulf were closed for fishing. Yet, the satellite footprint does not necessarily capture the entire oil spill extent. Here, we use in situ observations and oil spill transport modeling to examine the full extent of the DWH spill, focusing on toxic-to-biota (i.e., marine organisms) oil concentration ranges. We demonstrate that large areas of the GoM were exposed to invisible and toxic oil that extended beyond the boundaries of the satellite footprint and the fishery closures. With a global increase in petroleum production–related activities, a careful assessment of oil spills’ full extent is necessary to maximize environmental and public safety.

Nano-titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) is the most widely used form of nanoparticles in commercial industry and comes in 2 main configurations: rutile and anatase. Rutile TiO2 is used in ultraviolet (UV) screening applications, whereas anatase TiO2 crystals have a surface defect that makes them photoreactive. There are numerous reports in the literature of photo-induced toxicity to aquatic organisms following coexposure to anatase nano-TiO2 and UV. All natural freshwater contains varying amounts of natural organic matter (NOM), which can drive UV attenuation and quench reactive oxygen species (ROS) in aquatic ecosystems. The present research examined how NOM alters the photo-induced toxicity of anatase nano-TiO2 . Daphnia magna neonates were coexposed to NOM and photoexcited anatase nano-TiO2 for 48 h. Natural organic matter concentrations as low as 4 mg/L reduced anatase nano-TiO2 toxicity by nearly 100%. These concentrations of NOM attenuated UV by

Solar radiation is a vital component of ecosystem function. However, sunlight can also interact with certain xenobiotic compounds in a phenomenon known as photo-induced, photo-enhanced, photo-activated, or photo-toxicity. This phenomenon broadly refers to an interaction between a chemical and sunlight resulting in increased toxicity. Because most aquatic ecosystems receive some amount of sunlight, co-exposure to xenobiotic chemicals and solar radiation is likely to occur in the environment, and photo-induced toxicity may be an important factor impacting aquatic ecosystems. However, photo-induced toxicity is not likely to be relevant in all aquatic systems or exposure scenarios due to variation in important ecological factors as well as physiological adaptations of the species that reside there. Here, we provide an updated review of the state of the science of photo-induced toxicity in aquatic ecosystems.

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 overlapped with the spawning of many pelagic fish species in the Gulf of Mexico, including mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) released during the spill have been shown to cause photo-induced toxicity under ultraviolet (UV) radiation. In the present study, mahi-mahi embryos were exposed to high-energy water accommodated fractions of source and naturally weathered oils for up to 48 h. The timing of co-exposure with UV radiation varied between an early development exposure for 8 h or a late development exposure for 8 h. The UV co-exposure had a photo-induced toxic effect on hatching success for all oil types and exposure scenarios. A more sensitive developmental window to photo-induced toxicity was observed when UV exposure occurred late in development. Source Oil B (SOB) was over six fold more toxic and Massachusetts source oil (MASS) oil was 1.6 fold more toxic when the embryos were co-exposed to UV light late in development. Further, weathered oil from the surface (OFS) co-exposure with UV late in development resulted in bradycardia in the mahi-mahi. The present study provides evidence that the developmental window when UV co-exposure occurs has a significant effect on the degree of photo-induced toxicity of oil, as well as provides evidence that UV co-exposure may exacerbate long-term cardiac effects in developing fish. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Key differences in the developmental process of pelagic fish embryos, in comparison to embryos of standard test fish species, present challenges to obtaining sufficient control survival needed to successfully perform traditional toxicity testing bioassays. Many of these challenges relate to the change in buoyancy, from positive to negative, of pelagic fish embryos that occurs just prior to hatch. A novel exposure system, the pelagic embryo-larval exposure chamber (PELEC), has been developed to conduct successful bioassays on the early life stages (ELSs; embryos/larvae) of pelagic fish. Using this unique recirculating upwelling system, it was possible to significantly improve control survival in pelagic fish ELS bioassays compared to commonly used static exposure methods. Results demonstrate that control performance of mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus) embryos in the PELEC system, measured as percent survival after 96-hrs, significantly outperformed agitated static exposure and static exposure systems. Similar significant improvements in 72-hr control survival were obtained with yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares). The PELEC system was subsequently used to test the effects of photo-induced toxicity of crude oil to mahi-mahi ELSs over the course of 96-hrs. Results indicate a greater than 9-fold increase in toxicity of Deepwater Horizon (DWH) crude oil during co-exposure to ambient sunlight compared to filtered ambient sunlight, revealing the importance of including natural sunlight in 96-hr DWH crude oil bioassays as well as the PELEC system's potential application in ecotoxicological assessments.

Lake Saint-Louis, a shallow fluvial lake near the western tip of the island of Montreal, QC, Canada is an important spawning ground for many species of fish. Sediments in certain areas of the lake are known to be contaminated with high levels of metals and legacy organic chemicals. To improve our understanding of risk to native fish populations, we conducted a study evaluating levels of sediment contamination and potential effects on early life stage fish. Concentrations of PAHs, PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs were several orders of magnitude higher at two industrial sites (B1 and B2) than at a nearby reference site (IP). Concentrations of 32 metals and metalloids were at least 5-fold higher at B1 and B2 than at IP. Moreover, all available interim sediment quality guidelines (ISQGs) were exceeded at the two contaminated sites, while none were exceeded at the reference site. Biological effects were evaluated using a sediment contact assay. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were exposed to clean water (control), or to sediment from IP, B1, and B2 until 120 h post fertilization (hpf). Mortality was significantly elevated in fish exposed to the B1, but not the B2 sediment. The frequency of deformities increased with increasing contamination, but this trend was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Genes that are implicated in the response to PAHs, PCBs, dioxins and furans (cyp1a, cyp1b1, ahr2) were significantly elevated in the 120 hpf larvae exposed to the B1 and B2 sediments. Global DNA methylation, and mRNA expression of genes related to oxidative stress (maft, cat, hmox1, sod2), embryonic development (bmp2b, baf60c), metal exposure (mt2), and DNA repair (gadd45b) were unaffected. Our results suggest that the Beauharnois sector of Lake Saint-Louis is poor quality spawning habitat due to high levels of contamination, and the potential for harmful effects on early life stage fish.

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulted in the accidental release of approximately 700 million L of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Photo-induced toxicity after co-exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation is 1 mechanism by which polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil spills may exert toxicity. Blue crab are an important commercial and ecological resource in the Gulf of Mexico, and their largely transparent larvae may make them sensitive to PAH photo-induced toxicity. The goal of the present study was to examine the sensitivity of early lifestage blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) zoea to slick oil collected during the Deepwater Horizon spill. Blue crab zoea were exposed to 1 of several dilutions of water accommodated fractions from 1 of 2 sources of oil and gradations of natural sunlight in a factorial design. Two 7-h solar exposures were carried out with a recovery period (dark) in between. Survival was found to be UV- and PAH-dependent. Toxicity was observed within the range of surface PAH concentrations reported in the Gulf of Mexico during the Deepwater Horizon spill. These findings indicate that early lifestage blue crab are sensitive to photo-induced toxicity from Deepwater Horizon slick oil. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;34:2061–2066. © 2015 SETAC

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NP) are one of the most abundantly utilized nanoparticles in the world. Studies have demonstrated the ability of the anatase crystal of TiO2 NP to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), a co-exposure likely to occur in aquatic ecosystems. The goal of this study was to examine the photo-induced toxicity of anatase TiO2 NP under natural sunlight to Daphnia magna. D. magna were exposed to a range of UVR intensities and anatase TiO2 concentrations in an outdoor exposure system using the sun as the source of UVR. Different UVR intensities were achieved using UVR opaque and transparent plastics. AnataseTiO2-NP demonstrated the reciprocal relationship seen in other phototoxic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at higher UVR treatments. The calculated 8h LC50 of anatase TiO2 NP was 139 ppb under full intensity ambient natural sunlight, 778 ppb under 50% natural sunlight, and >500 ppm under 10% natural sunlight. Mortality was also compared between animals allowed to accumulate a body burden of anatase TiO2 for 1h and organisms whose first exposure to anatase TiO2 aqueous suspensions occurred under UVR. A significantly greater toxic effect was observed in aqueous, low body burden suspensions than that of TiO2 1h body burdens, which is dissimilar from the model presented in PAHs. Anatase TiO2 presents a unique photo-induced toxic model that is different than that of established phototoxic compounds.

The 2010 explosion of the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil rig led to the release of millions of barrels of oil in the Gulf of Mexico. Oil in aquatic ecosystems exerts toxicity through multiple mechanisms, including photo-induced toxicity following co-exposure with UV radiation. The timing and location of the spill coincided with both fiddler crab reproduction and peak yearly UV intensities, putting early life stage fiddler crabs at risk of injury due to photo-induced toxicity. The present study assessed sensitivity of fiddler crab larvae to photo-induced toxicity during co-exposure to a range of environmentally relevant dilutions of high-energy water accommodated fractions of DWH oil, and either10, 50, or 100% ambient sunlight, achieved with filters that allowed for variable UV penetration. Solar exposures (duration: 7-h per day) were conducted for two consecutive days, with a dark recovery period (duration: 17-h) in between. Survival was significantly decreased in treatments the presence of10% UV and relatively low concentrations of oil. Results of the present study indicate fiddler crab larvae are sensitive to photo-induced toxicity in the presence of DWH oil. These results are of concern, as fiddler crabs play an important role as ecosystem engineers, modulating sediment biogeochemical processes via burrowing action. Furthermore, they occupy an important place in the food web in the Gulf of Mexico.

The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in the USA’s Gulf of Mexico created a high degree of exposure of marine organisms to toxic polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) present in crude oil. To determine the ecological and physiological effects of crude oil on the Gulf of Mexico ecosystem, the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative created several research consortia to address overreaching questions concerning the biological impacts of the ecology of the Gulf of Mexico that would otherwise be beyond the capabilities of an individual investigator or a small group. One of these consortia, highlighted in this article, is the RECOVER Consortium, which brings together physiologists, developmental biologists, toxicologists and other life scientists to focus on the multifaceted physiological effects of PAHs, especially as they pertain to cardiovascular and metabolic physiology of economically important fish species. Using the Recover Consortium’s interdisciplinary approach to revealing the biological impacts of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill as a case study, we make the argument for interdisciplinary teams that bring together scientists with different specialties as an efficient way—and perhaps the only way—to unravel highly complex biological effects of marine oil spills.

Millions of barrels of oil were released into the Gulf of Mexico following the 2010 explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are toxic components of crude oil, which may become more toxic in the presence of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, a phenomenon known as photo-induced toxicity. The Deepwater Horizon spill impacted offshore and estuarine sites, where biota may be co-exposed to UV and PAHs. Penetration of UV into the water column is affected by site-specific factors. Therefore, measurements and/or estimations of UV are necessary when one is assessing the risk to biota posed by photo-induced toxicity. We describe how estimates of incident UV were determined for the area impacted by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, using monitoring data from radiometers near the spill, in conjunction with reference spectra characterizing the composition of solar radiation. Furthermore, we provide UV attenuation coefficients for both near- and offshore sites in the Gulf of Mexico. These estimates are specific to the time and location of the spill, and fall within the range of intensities utilized during photo-induced toxicity tests performed in support of the Deepwater Horizon Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA). These data further validate the methodologies and findings of phototoxicity tests included in the Deepwater Horizon NRDA, while underscoring the importance of considering UV exposure when assessing possible risks following oil spills. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:1679-1687. © 2018 SETAC.

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 overlapped with the spawning of many pelagic fish species in the Gulf of Mexico, including mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) released during the spill have been shown to cause photo-induced toxicity under ultraviolet (UV) radiation. In the present study, mahi-mahi embryos were exposed to high-energy water accommodated fractions of source and naturally weathered oils for up to 48 h. The timing of co-exposure with UV radiation varied between an early development exposure for 8 h or a late development exposure for 8 h. The UV co-exposure had a photo-induced toxic effect on hatching success for all oil types and exposure scenarios. A more sensitive developmental window to photo-induced toxicity was observed when UV exposure occurred late in development. Source Oil B was over 6-fold more toxic, and Massachusetts source oil was 1.6-fold more toxic when the embryos were co-exposed to UV light late in development. Furthermore, weathered oil from the surface co-exposure with UV late in development resulted in bradycardia in the mahi-mahi. The present study provides evidence that the developmental window when UV co-exposure occurs has a significant effect on the degree of photo-induced toxicity of oil and that UV co-exposure may exacerbate long-term cardiac effects in developing fish. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:1592-1598. © 2016 SETAC.

Nano-titanium dioxide (TiO

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulted in the accidental release of millions of barrels of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Photo-induced toxicity following co-exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation is 1 mechanism by which polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil spills may exert toxicity. Red drum and speckled seatrout are both important fishery resources in the Gulf of Mexico. They spawn near-shore and produce positively buoyant embryos that hatch into larvae in approximately 24 h. The goal of the present study was to determine whether exposure to UV as natural sunlight enhances the toxicity of crude oil to early lifestage red drum and speckled seatrout. Larval fish were exposed to several dilutions of high-energy water-accommodated fractions (HEWAFs) from 2 different oils collected in the field under chain of custody during the 2010 spill and 3 gradations of natural sunlight in a factorial design. Co-exposure to natural sunlight and oil significantly reduced larval survival compared with exposure to oil alone. Although both species were sensitive at PAH concentrations reported during the Deepwater Horizon spill, speckled seatrout demonstrated a greater sensitivity to photo-induced toxicity than red drum. These data demonstrate that even advanced weathering of slicks does not ameliorate the potential for photo-induced toxicity of oil to these species. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:780-785. © 2016 SETAC.

Relatively little is known about the potential impacts of engineered nanoparticles on aquatic biota. Particularly relevant to aquatic ecosystems are those particles, which display increased solubility either through specialized coatings or through an ability to interact with water column constituents such as natural organic matter (NOM). Previous research has indicated that grazing zooplankton (Daphnia magna) are able to ingest lipid-coated single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) from the water column during their normal feeding behavior (Roberts et al., 2007). Acute mortality was observed only at high concentrations (5mg/L). In this research NOM was used in place of a surfactant to stabilize suspensions. Water chemistry (ionic strength, hardness, and pH) has been shown to alter the behavior of NOM in natural systems. We hypothesized that these same variables may also affect the toxicity of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT) stabilized in NOM. The purpose of this research was to examine the potential for sublethal effects to occur following exposure to multi-walled carbon nanotubes suspended in NOM and to determine whether those effects vary with pH alterations.

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulted in the accidental release of millions barrels of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Photoinduced toxicity following coexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation is one mechanism by which polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil spills may exert toxicity. Mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus), an important fishery resource, have positively buoyant, transparent eggs. These characteristics may result in mahi-mahi embryos being at particular risk from photoinduced toxicity. The goal of this study was to determine whether exposure to ultraviolet radiation as natural sunlight enhances the toxicity of crude oil to embryonic mahi-mahi. Mahi-mahi embryos were exposed to several dilutions of water accommodated fractions (WAF) from slick oil collected during the 2010 spill and gradations of natural sunlight in a fully factorial design. Here, we report that coexposure to natural sunlight and WAF significantly reduced percent hatch in mahi-mahi embryos. Effect concentrations of PAH in WAF were within the range of surface PAH concentrations reported in the Gulf of Mexico during the Deepwater Horizon spill. These data suggest that laboratory toxicity tests that do not include UV may underestimate the toxicity of oil spills to early lifestage fish species.

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulted in the accidental release of approximately 700 million L of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Photo-induced toxicity after co-exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation is 1 mechanism by which polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil spills may exert toxicity. Blue crab are an important commercial and ecological resource in the Gulf of Mexico, and their largely transparent larvae may make them sensitive to PAH photo-induced toxicity. The goal of the present study was to examine the sensitivity of early lifestage blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) zoea to slick oil collected during the Deepwater Horizon spill. Blue crab zoea were exposed to 1 of several dilutions of water accommodated fractions from 1 of 2 sources of oil and gradations of natural sunlight in a factorial design. Two 7-h solar exposures were carried out with a recovery period (dark) in between. Survival was found to be UV- and PAH-dependent. Toxicity was observed within the range of surface PAH concentrations reported in the Gulf of Mexico during the Deepwater Horizon spill. These findings indicate that early lifestage blue crab are sensitive to photo-induced toxicity from Deepwater Horizon slick oil.