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1. Development of a nicotine aerosol self-administration model in rats and the effects of e-liquid flavors

Author: Julie A. Marusich and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Pharmacology, Psychiatry and Mental health
Published: 2023

2. Intravenous and oral caffeine self-administration in rats

Author: Matthew I. Palmatier and Curtis A. Bradley
Subjects: Male, Administration, Oral, Self Administration, Pharmacology, Caffeine Dose, Toxicology, Decaffeinated coffee, 03 medical and health sciences, chemistry.chemical_compound, Saccharin, 0302 clinical medicine, Reward, Caffeine, medicine, Animals, Pharmacology (medical), 030212 general & internal medicine, Caffeine use, Motivation, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, business.industry, medicine.disease, Rats, Substance abuse, Psychiatry and Mental health, chemistry, Conditioning, Operant, Administration, Intravenous, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Caffeine intake, business, Self-administration, Reinforcement, Psychology, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery
Abstract: Caffeine is widely consumed for its psychoactive effects worldwide. No pre-clinical study has established reliable caffeine self-administration, but we found that caffeine can enhance the reinforcing effects of non-drug rewards. The goal of the present studies was to determine if this effect of caffeine could result in reliable caffeine self-administration. In 2 experiments rats could make an operant response for caffeine delivered in conjunction with an oral 'vehicle' including saccharin (0.2% w/v) as a primary reinforcer. In Experiment 1, intravenous (IV) caffeine infusions were delivered in conjunction with oral saccharin for meeting the schedule of reinforcement. In control conditions, oral saccharin alone or presentations of IV caffeine alone served as the reinforcer. In Experiment 2, access to caffeine was provided in an oral vehicle containing water, decaffeinated instant coffee (0.5% w/v), or decaffeinated coffee and saccharin (0.2%). The concentration of oral caffeine was then manipulated across testing sessions. Oral and IV caffeine robustly increased responding for saccharin in a manner that was repeatable, reliable, and systematically related to unit IV dose. However, the relationship between oral caffeine dose and operant behavior was less systematic; the rats appeared to titrate their caffeine intake by reducing the consummatory response (drinking) rather than the appetitive response (lever pressing). These studies establish reliable volitional caffeine self-administration in rats. The reinforcement enhancing effects of caffeine may help to explain widespread caffeine use by humans, who ingest caffeine in complex vehicles with reinforcing properties.
Published: 2019

3. Nicotine Self-Administration With Tobacco Flavor Additives in Male Rats

Author: Curtis A. Bradley, Ethan M Odineal, Ashley Brianna Sheppard, Amanda L Smith, Matthew I. Palmatier, and Emily A. Williams
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Sucrose, Original Investigations, Self Administration, Dosage form, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, 03 medical and health sciences, chemistry.chemical_compound, 0302 clinical medicine, medicine, Glycyrrhiza, Animals, Palatability, Food science, Flavor, Motivation, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health, food and beverages, Tobacco Products, 030227 psychiatry, Rats, Flavoring Agents, Dose–response relationship, Menthol, chemistry, Taste, Administration, Intravenous, Self-administration, Reinforcement, Psychology, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery, medicine.drug
Abstract: Introduction Nicotine can robustly increase responding for conditioned reinforcers (CRs), stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties based on association with primary reinforcers. Menthol and licorice are tobacco flavoring agents also found in sweet foods (eg, candy and ice cream), making them putative CRs before they are consumed in tobacco. We sought to determine if intravenous self-administration (IVSA) of nicotine was enhanced by the inclusion of oral tobacco flavor CRs. Methods Menthol (160 or 320 µM) or licorice root extract (0.1% or 1%) were established as CRs (paired with 20% sucrose) or “neutral” stimuli (paired with water) in separate groups. During subsequent IVSA tests, nicotine was delivered in conjunction with oral presentations of the CR. Results In experiment 1, a menthol CR significantly shifted the peak nicotine dose from 15 µg/kg/infusion (Neutral group) to 3.25 µg/kg/infusion (CR group). In experiment 2, a menthol CR significantly increased operant licks for nicotine (3 µg/kg/infusion) relative to control groups. In experiment 3, both licorice and menthol CRs significantly increased operant licks for nicotine (7.5 µg/kg/infusion) relative to an “inactive” sipper. The licorice CR increased nicotine IVSA in proportion to the strength of the flavor, but both menthol concentrations increased nicotine IVSA to a similar extent. Conclusion Tobacco flavor additives with conditioned reinforcing properties promote acquisition of nicotine self-administration at low unit doses and may have robust impact on tobacco consumption when nicotine yield is low. Implications Tobacco flavor additives are found in rewarding foods (eg, ice cream) and gain palatability based on associations with primary rewards (eg, sugar) making them “conditioned reinforcers.” Nicotine increases the motivation for flavor conditioned reinforcers and the present studies show that tobacco flavor additives can interact with nicotine to promote more nicotine self-administration. The interaction between flavors additives and nicotine may promote nicotine exposure and subsequently dependence.
Published: 2019

4. Orbitofrontal participation in sign- and goal-tracking conditioned responses: Effects of nicotine

Author: Sierra J. Stringfield, Matthew I. Palmatier, Donita L. Robinson, and Charlotte A. Boettiger
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, Male, Drugs of abuse, Baclofen, Nicotine, Neuronal firing, Conditioning, Classical, Action Potentials, Prefrontal Cortex, Neuropsychological Tests, behavioral disciplines and activities, Article, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, 03 medical and health sciences, Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, chemistry.chemical_compound, 0302 clinical medicine, Receptors, GABA, medicine, Animals, Attention, Nicotinic Agonists, GABA Agonists, Pharmacology, Neurons, Muscimol, musculoskeletal, neural, and ocular physiology, Classical conditioning, Electrophysiology, 030104 developmental biology, chemistry, nervous system, behavior and behavior mechanisms, Orbitofrontal cortex, Cues, Psychology, Neuroscience, Goals, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery, psychological phenomena and processes, medicine.drug
Abstract: Pavlovian conditioned stimuli can acquire incentive motivational properties, and this phenomenon can be measured in animals using Pavlovian conditioned approach behavior. Drugs of abuse can influence the expression of this behavior, and nicotine in particular exhibits incentive amplifying effects. Both conditioned approach behavior and drug abuse rely on overlapping corticolimbic circuitry. We hypothesize that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) regulates conditioned approach, and that one site of nicotine action is in the OFC where it reduces cortical output. To test this, we repeatedly exposed rats to 0.4 mg/kg nicotine (s.c.) during training and then pharmacologically inactivated the lateral OFC or performed in vivo electrophysiological recordings of lateral OFC neurons in the presence or absence of nicotine. In Experiment 1, animals were trained in a Pavlovian conditioning paradigm and behavior was evaluated after inactivation of the OFC by microinfusion of the GABA agonists baclofen and muscimol. In Experiment 2, we monitored phasic firing of OFC neurons during Pavlovian conditioning sessions. Nicotine reliably enhanced conditioned responding to the conditioned cue, and inactivation of the OFC reduced conditioned responding, especially the sign-tracking response. OFC neurons exhibited phasic excitations to cue presentation and during goal tracking, and nicotine acutely blunted this phasic neuronal firing. When nicotine was withheld, both conditioned responding and phasic firing in the OFC returned to the level of controls. These results suggest that the OFC is recruited for the expression of conditioned responses, and that nicotine acutely influences this behavior by reducing phasic firing in the OFC.
Published: 2016

5. Caffeine increases the motivation to obtain non-drug reinforcers in rats

Author: Matthew I. Palmatier, Skyler C. Gross, Sarah A. Pavelka, A. Brianna Sheppard, and Melanie J. Hall
Subjects: Male, Drug, Sucrose, Reinforcement Schedule, media_common.quotation_subject, medicine.medical_treatment, Intraperitoneal injection, Self Administration, Stimulus (physiology), Pharmacology, Toxicology, Article, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Nicotine, chemistry.chemical_compound, Caffeine, medicine, Animals, Pharmacology (medical), media_common, Motivation, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Rats, Psychiatry and Mental health, Dose–response relationship, chemistry, Anesthesia, Conditioning, Operant, Conditioning, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Self-administration, Psychology, Reinforcement, Psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: Background : Caffeine is widely considered to be a reinforcer in humans, but this effect is difficult to measure in non-human animals. We hypothesized that caffeine may have dual reinforcing effects comparable to nicotine – limited primary reinforcing effects, but potent reinforcement enhancing effects. The present studies tested this hypothesis by investigating the effect of caffeine on responding for non-drug rewards. Methods : In two experiments, rats were shaped to respond on a progressive ratio (PR) schedule for sucrose solution (20%, w/v; Experiment 1) or a fixed ratio 2 (FR2) schedule for a moderately reinforcing visual stimulus (VS; Experiment 2). Pretreatment with various doses of caffeine (0–50 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection) were administered prior to tests over successive week days (M-F). In Experiment 1, acute administration of low-moderate caffeine doses (6.25–25 mg/kg) increased responding for sucrose under the PR schedule. This effect of caffeine declined over the initial 15 test days. In Experiment 2, only acute pretreatment with 12.5 mg/kg caffeine increased responding for the visual stimulus and complete tolerance to this effect of caffeine was observed over the 15 days of testing. In follow up tests we found that abstinence periods of 4 and 8 days resulted in incomplete recovery of the enhancing effects of caffeine. Conclusion : The findings suggest that caffeine enhances the reinforcing effects of non-drug stimuli, but that the pharmacological profile of these effects may differ from other psychomotor stimulants.
Published: 2012

6. Silencing giant cholinergic interneurons in the nucleus accumbens with DREADDS reduces nicotine self-administration in rats

Author: Emily A. Williams, Curtis A. Bradley, and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Pharmacology, Nicotine, Psychiatry and Mental health, Chemistry, medicine, Gene silencing, Cholinergic, Pharmacology (medical), Nucleus accumbens, Toxicology, Self-administration, Neuroscience, medicine.drug
Published: 2017

7. Varenicline Dose Dependently Enhances Responding for Nonpharmacological Reinforcers and Attenuates the Reinforcement-Enhancing Effects of Nicotine

Author: Alan F. Sved, Eric C. Donny, Matthew T. Weaver, Anthony R. Caggiula, Melissa E. Levin, and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, medicine.medical_treatment, Original Investigations, Pharmacology, Stimulus (physiology), Rats, Sprague-Dawley, chemistry.chemical_compound, Quinoxalines, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Varenicline, Reinforcement, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, fungi, Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health, Tobacco Use Disorder, Benzazepines, Rats, Dose–response relationship, Nicotinic agonist, chemistry, Smoking cessation, Smoking Cessation, Partial Nicotinic Agonist, Reinforcement, Psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: Varenicline (VAR), a partial nicotinic agonist, is one of the most effective smoking cessation pharmacotherapies. The therapeutic efficacy of VAR could be partly the result of substituting for and/or blocking the reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine (NIC). We assessed the effects of VAR alone and in combination with NIC (0.4 mg/kg) while rats pressed the lever for a moderately reinforcing visual stimulus (VS).Rats were injected with placebo (0.9% saline), NIC, VAR (0.1-1 mg/kg), or NIC + VAR. A follow-up study was conducted with a broader dose range of VAR-alone dosages (0.01-3.0 mg/kg). All drug manipulations were conducted in a between-subjects design to prevent confounding effects of repeated exposure.There was a dose-dependent effect of VAR alone. Moderate doses of VAR (0.1 and 1.0 mg/kg) increased the number of VS presentations earned, while lower and higher VAR doses (0.01 and 3.0 mg/kg) did not change responding for the VS. VAR dose dependently attenuated the reinforcement-enhancing effects of NIC, with the highest dose (1.0 mg/kg) exhibiting the greatest antagonist effect.The results of these studies support the assertion that the therapeutic efficacy of VAR may be due to the partial agonist characteristics of the drug, specifically, its ability to partially replace the reinforcement-enhancing effects of NIC as well as antagonize these effects.
Published: 2011

8. The role of conditioning history and reinforcer strength in the reinforcement enhancing effects of nicotine in rats

Author: Melanie J. Hall, Laura C. O’Brien, and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Sucrose, Reinforcement Schedule, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, chemistry.chemical_compound, Animal science, Reward, Conditioning, Psychological, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Reinforcement, Pharmacology, Motivation, Behavior, Animal, Behavioral activation, Rats, chemistry, Anesthesia, Conditioning, Progressive ratio, Sucrose intake, Psychology, Fixed ratio, medicine.drug
Abstract: Nicotine (NIC) administration can increase behaviors that result in delivery of non-drug reinforcers (e.g., salient sensory stimuli). However, little is known about the circumstances under which NIC increases these behaviors. The present studies sought to extend the reinforcement enhancing effects of NIC to sucrose rewards for which intensity could be systematically manipulated. In Experiment 1, rats were trained to respond for sucrose (30% w/v) on a progressive ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement and were pretreated with NIC (0.4 mg/kg free-base) or physiological saline (SAL). The intensity of the sucrose reward was manipulated over subsequent testing sessions (0–60% w/v). Similar procedures were used in Experiment 2; however, each subject received only one sucrose concentration (0–20%) to control for conditioning history. In Experiment 3, a fixed ratio 3 (FR3) schedule of reinforcement was used to investigate putative activating effects of NIC. Experiment 4 investigated whether NIC pretreatment would reduce sucrose intake in limited-access drinks. In Experiment 1, NIC increased the motivation to obtain all sucrose concentrations, including water. However, when conditioning history was controlled (Experiment 2) the reinforcement enhancing effects of NIC were systematically related to the strength of the reinforcer. In Experiment 3, NIC neither increased nor decreased responding for sucrose. In Experiment 4, NIC reduced sucrose intake, but only at concentrations that resulted in peak drink volumes (5–20%). The results suggest that the reinforcement enhancing effects of NIC depend on conditioning history and do not appear to be the result of simple behavioral activation.
Published: 2011

9. The motivation to obtain nicotine-conditioned reinforcers depends on nicotine dose

Author: Xiu Liu, Sarah Coddington, Alan F. Sved, Matthew I. Palmatier, Anthony R. Caggiula, and Eric C. Donny
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Reinforcement Schedule, medicine.medical_treatment, Stimulus (physiology), Article, Developmental psychology, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Reinforcement, Saline, Pharmacology, Analysis of Variance, Motivation, Behavior, Animal, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Association Learning, Classical conditioning, Rats, Anesthesia, Conditioning, Operant, Conditioning, Analysis of variance, Psychology, Self-administration, Reinforcement, Psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: Stimuli associated with nicotine (NIC) can acquire new meaning via Pavlovian conditioning. If a stimulus is associated with the primary reinforcing effects of NIC, the new conditional properties of the stimulus should make it a more valuable reinforcer (i.e., increase the motivation to obtain the stimulus), and this value should be based, in part, on the strength or intensity of the primary reinforcer (i.e., NIC dose). The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether NIC-conditioned reinforcement increased motivation to obtain non-NIC stimuli, as reflected by performance on a progressive ratio (PR) reinforcement schedule, and whether this increased motivation was systematically related to NIC dose. Two Paired groups were allowed to nose-poke for NIC (0.03 or 0.09 mg/kg/infusion, IV) accompanied by 15-s illumination of a stimulus light (conditional stimulus or CS). Two Unpaired groups (0.03 or 0.09 mg/kg/infusion) could also make a nose-poke response for the CS; however their NIC infusions were controlled by the Paired group (i.e., yoked design). A fifth group (CS-Only) was allowed to nose-poke for CS presentations and saline infusions. After 29 conditioning sessions the nose-poke operant was prevented by obscuring the receptacle and the CS (accompanied by saline infusion for all groups) was made contingent upon a novel operant response (lever press). During the acquisition of this novel response, each CS/saline infusion earned increased the number of responses required to earn the next CS/saline infusion. Pairings with the primary reinforcing effects of NIC resulted the acquisition of a novel response for the CS. Motivation to obtain the CS depended on salience (dose) of the primary reinforcement (NIC).
Published: 2008

10. Occasion setting by drug states: Functional equivalence following similar training history

Author: Matthew I. Palmatier and Rick A. Bevins
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Sucrose, Substance-Related Disorders, medicine.drug_class, media_common.quotation_subject, Conditioning, Classical, Poison control, Pharmacology, Stimulus (physiology), Article, Extinction, Psychological, Chlordiazepoxide, Discrimination Learning, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Behavioral Neuroscience, Reward, medicine, Animals, Hypnotics and Sedatives, Nicotinic Agonists, Amphetamine, media_common, Benzodiazepine, Behavior, Animal, Addiction, Association Learning, Rats, Nicotinic agonist, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Psychology, Injections, Intraperitoneal, medicine.drug
Abstract: Three experiments examined whether a drug state serving as a positive feature for pairings between a discrete conditional stimulus (CS, 15-s light or 15-s noise) and sucrose could transfer facilitative control to a CS with which it had never been presented. To do so, a CS was paired with a sucrose reward in the nicotine (0.4 mg/kg), amphetamine (AMP, 1 mg/kg), or chlordiazepoxide (CDP, 5 mg/kg) drug state; in separate saline sessions the CS was presented but was not followed by any reward. All three drug states facilitated responding to a discrete CS; previous studies found that this facilitation did not depend on direct associations between the drug state and sucrose. When a second discrimination was trained (e.g., CDP: light-sucrose and nicotine: noise-sucrose) the drug states facilitated responding to the CS trained in that state (nicotine: noise) as well as the CS normally presented in the other drug state (e.g., nicotine: light). A novel drug state (e.g., amphetamine) did not affect responding to either CS, indicating that the originally trained drug states had acquired functional similarity based on learning history. Also, a novel or ambiguous CS did not evoke responding in the previously trained drug state, indicating that both the features (drug states) and target conditional stimuli had to be trained in discriminations before transfer could occur.
Published: 2008

11. Naltrexone attenuation of conditioned but not primary reinforcement of nicotine in rats

Author: Maysa Gharib, Eric C. Donny, Matthew I. Palmatier, Xiu Liu, Alan F. Sved, Sheri Booth, and Anthony R. Caggiula
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, medicine.drug_class, Narcotic Antagonists, Self Administration, Pharmacology, Neurotransmission, Article, Naltrexone, Extinction, Psychological, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Opioid receptor, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Classical conditioning, Rats, Nicotinic agonist, Opioid, Food, Conditioning, Operant, Cues, Psychology, Self-administration, Reinforcement, Psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: Opioid neurotransmission has been implicated in reinforcement-related processes for several drugs of abuse, including opiates, stimulants, and alcohol. However, less is known about its role in the motivational effects of nicotine and nicotine-associated environmental cues.This study investigated whether pretreatment with naltrexone, an opioid receptor antagonist, alters conditioned incentive salience of nicotine cues under two conditions: cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine-seeking after extinction and cue-maintained responding during extinction. The effect of naltrexone on nicotine self-administration during the maintenance phase was also examined.Male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained in daily 1-h sessions to self-administer nicotine (0.03 mg/kg/infusion, i.v.) on a fixed-ratio 5 schedule and associate a conditioned stimulus (CS) with each nicotine delivery. Once responding was extinguished by saline substitution for nicotine and omission of the CS, the reinstatement tests were conducted following subcutaneous administration of naltrexone (0, 0.25, 1, 2 mg/kg). In separate groups of rats, naltrexone (0, 2 mg/kg) was chronically given before each extinction sessions, where responses on the active lever resulted in presentations of the CS without nicotine infusion (saline substitution). Self-administration/naltrexone tests were conducted in different groups of rats receiving similar nicotine self-administration training.Naltrexone significantly attenuated the CS-reinstated responding on the active, previously nicotine-reinforced lever in the reinstatement tests and the CS-maintained active lever responding during the extinction tests. In contrast, neither acute nor chronic naltrexone produced an effect on nicotine self-administration behavior.These results indicate that activation of opioid receptors is implicated in mediation of the conditioned incentive properties of nicotine cues but not in the maintenance of nicotine self-administration. Therefore, these findings suggest that opioid receptor antagonists might have clinical potential for prevention of smoking relapse associated with exposure to environmental cues.
Published: 2008

12. Cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine-seeking behavior in rats: effect of bupropion, persistence over repeated tests, and its dependence on training dose

Author: Eric C. Donny, Anthony R. Caggiula, Xiu Liu, Alan F. Sved, and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, medicine.medical_treatment, Self Administration, Pharmacology, Article, Extinction, Psychological, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Infusions, Intravenous, Bupropion, Behavior, Animal, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Alkaloid, Extinction (psychology), Rats, Nicotinic agonist, Conditioning, Operant, Smoking cessation, Animal studies, Cues, Psychology, Self-administration, Injections, Intraperitoneal, medicine.drug
Abstract: The motivational effects of nicotine-associated cues have been demonstrated in animal studies. However, it is unknown whether the effectiveness of nicotine cues in reinstating nicotine-seeking varies with the extent of prior nicotine self-administration. In addition, the issue of whether bupropion (an FDA-approved smoking cessation medication) interferes with the conditioned incentive of nicotine cues remains to be addressed. This study determined the relationship of cue-reinstated nicotine-seeking and the levels of prior self-administration and examined the effect of bupropion on cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine-seeking in comparison with that on self-administration. Male Sprague–Dawley rats were trained in daily 1-h sessions to intravenously self-administer nicotine at different doses (0, 0.015, 0.03, 0.06 mg/kg/infusion) and to associate an auditory/visual cue with each nicotine delivery. After extinction, three reinstatement tests at 15 day intervals were conducted with re-presentation of the cue without nicotine delivery. In separate groups of rats trained with 0.03 mg/kg/infusion nicotine, bupropion (0, 10, 20, 40 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered to different groups before the reinstatement and in a within-subject design before the self-administration tests. Cue-induced reinstatement of active lever responses was observed at all nicotine doses in the first reinstatement test, but at only the two highest doses during the second and third tests. The magnitude of reinstatement was positively correlated with level of prior responding for nicotine. Bupropion pretreatment decreased nicotine self-administration but enhanced cue-reinstated nicotine-seeking. These results demonstrate the positive correlation of cue-reinstated nicotine-seeking with prior responding for nicotine self-administration and the persistence of the cue effect after taking higher doses of nicotine. The results of pharmacological tests suggest that although it is able to help achieve smoking cessation, bupropion may have little clinical benefit for the prevention of relapse associated with exposure to environmental smoking cues.
Published: 2007

13. Conditioned reinforcement in rats established with self-administered nicotine and enhanced by noncontingent nicotine

Author: Alan F. Sved, Anthony R. Caggiula, Eric C. Donny, Xiu Liu, Matthew I. Palmatier, and Gina L. Matteson
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Reinforcement Schedule, Time Factors, media_common.quotation_subject, Self Administration, Article, Developmental psychology, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Infusions, Intravenous, Reinforcement, media_common, Pharmacology, Behavior, Animal, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Alkaloid, Addiction, Association Learning, Tobacco Use Disorder, Rats, Associative learning, Nicotinic agonist, Conditioning, Operant, Conditioning, Psychology, Self-administration, Reinforcement, Psychology, Neuroscience, medicine.drug
Abstract: Nicotine is widely assumed to convey reinforcing properties upon tobacco-related stimuli through associative learning. We have proposed that the reinforcement derived from these conditional stimuli can be inflated by a nonassociative "reinforcement-enhancing" effect of nicotine.Experiment 1 investigated whether nicotine could establish a stimulus as a conditioned reinforcer. Using the same subjects, Experiment 2 examined whether responding for a nicotine-associated stimulus was enhanced by response-independent administration of nicotine.Self-administered nicotine (Paired group, 0.03 mg kg(1) infusion(-1)) or saline (conditional stimulus or CS-Only group) was paired with a stimulus light (CS). An Unpaired group, yoked to the Paired group, received equal exposure to nicotine and the CS, but each event was temporally separated. To test for conditioning, the CS was then made contingent upon a novel lever-pressing response. In Experiment 2, a subset of the paired rats (self-administering) continued to lever press while receiving contingent nicotine and the CS. To determine whether nicotine enhanced responding for the CS, two remaining subsets of the Paired group responded for the CS while receiving nicotine (YNIC) or saline (YSAL) yoked to the self-administering rats. All remaining control groups received response-contingent CS presentations, together with yoked nicotine or saline.Pairing self-administered nicotine with the CS promoted the acquisition of a novel response for the CS. In Experiment 2, the Paired YNIC group responded at higher rates than control groups receiving YNIC or YSAL.Nicotine can establish stimuli as conditioned reinforcers for which noncontingent nicotine can enhance responding.
Published: 2007

14. Reinforcement enhancing effect of nicotine and its attenuation by nicotinic antagonists in rats

Author: Matthew I. Palmatier, Anthony R. Caggiula, Alan F. Sved, Xiu Liu, and Eric C. Donny
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Reinforcement Schedule, Aconitine, Injections, Subcutaneous, Nicotinic Antagonists, Mecamylamine, Receptors, Nicotinic, Pharmacology, Article, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, chemistry.chemical_compound, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Nicotinic Antagonist, Infusions, Intravenous, Reinforcement, Infusion Pumps, Acetylcholine receptor, Methyllycaconitine, Analysis of Variance, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Alkaloid, food and beverages, Dihydro-beta-Erythroidine, Rats, Nicotinic agonist, chemistry, Visual Perception, Conditioning, Operant, Psychology, Reinforcement, Psychology, Injections, Intraperitoneal, Photic Stimulation, medicine.drug
Abstract: Recent studies have demonstrated that nicotine can enhance operant responding for other nonpharmacological reinforcing stimuli. However, the nature of the reinforcement-enhancing effect of nicotine remains largely unknown.The present study determined the dose dependency of the ability of nicotine to increase lever-pressing responses maintained by a compound visual stimulus (VS) in rats and examined its sensitivity to pharmacological antagonism of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs).Male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained in daily 1-h sessions to lever press for delivery of a VS (1 s lever light on and 60 s house light off) on a fixed ratio 5 schedule. During these sessions, eight scheduled response-independent intravenous infusions of nicotine (total amount: 0, 0.06, 0.12, 0.24, 0.48 mg kg(-1) h(-1)) were delivered. In pharmacological tests, a nonselective nAChR antagonist mecamylamine, alpha4beta2-selective antagonist dihydro-beta-erythroidine (DHbetaE), and alpha7-selective antagonist methyllycaconitine (MLA) were administered in different groups of rats 30 min before the session.The VS maintained a moderate level of lever-pressing responses and nicotine dose-dependently increased responses for the VS presentations. Preteatment of mecamylamine and DHbetaE but not MLA significantly attenuated the nicotine-enhanced responding. However, mecamylamine had no effect on responding for the VS in rats that received scheduled saline infusions.These results demonstrate dose dependency of the reinforcement-enhancing effect of nicotine and suggest that activation of the alpha4beta2- but not alpha7-containing nAChRs may mediate this effect.
Published: 2007

15. The interoceptive Pavlovian stimulus effects of caffeine

Author: Rick A. Bevins, Jennifer E. Murray, Matthew I. Palmatier, and Chia Li
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Sucrose, Dextroamphetamine, Conditioning, Classical, Clinical Biochemistry, Stimulus (physiology), Pharmacology, Toxicology, Biochemistry, Article, Chlordiazepoxide, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Behavioral Neuroscience, chemistry.chemical_compound, Discrimination, Psychological, Reward, Caffeine, medicine, Animals, Amphetamine, Biological Psychiatry, Appetitive Behavior, Classical conditioning, Rats, chemistry, Anesthesia, Stimulus control, Psychology, Photic Stimulation, medicine.drug
Abstract: The present research sought to test whether caffeine functioned as a Pavlovian cue in two ways—as a positive drug feature or as a conditional stimulus (CS). As a positive feature (Experiment 1), brief light presentations were followed by sucrose only on sessions in which caffeine (10 mg/kg) was administered. On intermixed saline sessions, light presentations were not followed by sucrose. The light came to control robust goal tracking (i.e., conditioned responding) only in caffeine sessions. Thus, caffeine disambiguates when the light was paired with sucrose. Decreasing the dose of caffeine decreased the conditioned responding evoked by the light (ED50 = 4.16 mg/kg). Neither nicotine nor amphetamine substituted for the caffeine feature. As a CS, caffeine (10 or 30 mg/kg, Experiments 2a and 2b, respectively) signaled intermittent access to sucrose—no light presentations. No sucrose or lights were presented on intermixed saline sessions. The caffeine CS, regardless of training dose, acquired the ability to evoke only a weak goal-tracking CR. The nature of this dissociation between caffeine as a drug feature and a CS is discussed within the context of past research finding a similar dissociation with amphetamine and chlordiazepoxide, but not with nicotine.
Published: 2007

16. The Role of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in the Primary Reinforcing and Reinforcement-Enhancing Effects of Nicotine

Author: Alan F. Sved, Eric C. Donny, Matthew I. Palmatier, Anthony R. Caggiula, and Xiu Liu
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Self Administration, Nicotinic Antagonists, Mecamylamine, Neuropsychological Tests, Receptors, Nicotinic, Pharmacology, Article, Extinction, Psychological, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Reward, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Acetylcholine receptor, Brain Chemistry, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Alkaloid, Brain, Tobacco Use Disorder, Acetylcholine, Rats, Psychiatry and Mental health, Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, Nicotinic agonist, Psychology, Self-administration, Reinforcement, Psychology, Photic Stimulation, medicine.drug
Abstract: The primary reinforcing effects of nicotine are mediated by the drugs action at central nervous system nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Although previous studies have demonstrated that nicotine potently enhances responding for non-pharmacological stimuli, the role of nAChRs in this reinforcement-enhancing effect is not known. The two reinforcement-related effects of nicotine can be dissociated in a paradigm that provides concurrent access to drug infusions and a non-pharmacological visual stimulus (VS). The present study characterized the role of nAChRs in the primary reinforcing effect of nicotine and the reinforcement-enhancing effect of nicotine. For rats with access to VS (VS-Only), nicotine (NIC-Only), both reinforcers contingent upon one response (NIC + VS) or both reinforcers contingent upon separate responses (2-Lever), unit dose–response relationships (0, 30, 60, or 90 μg/kg/infusion, free base) were determined over a 22-day acquisition period. Expression of the two reinforcement-related effects of nicotine was manipulated by pharmacological antagonism of nAChRs (1 mg/kg mecamylamine, subcutaneous, 5-min before the session) or by substituting saline for nicotine infusions (ie extinction) over a series of seven test sessions. Unit dose manipulations yielded an inverse dose–response relationship for active lever responding in the NIC + VS group. The dose–response relationships for rats with independent access to each reinforcer (2-Lever group) were relatively flat. For the 2-Lever group, acute mecamylamine challenge blocked the reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine, VS-lever responding decreased to basal levels on the first day of mecamylamine treatment or saline substitution (to the level of the VS-Only group). In contrast, nicotine-lever responding decreased gradually over the 7-day testing period (similar to saline extinction). The two reinforcement-related effects of nicotine are mediated by nAChRs but can be dissociated by acute and chronic profiles.
Published: 2006

17. Operant responding for conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers in rats is differentially enhanced by the primary reinforcing and reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine

Author: Eric C. Donny, Sheri Booth, Maysa Gharib, Xiu Liu, Anthony R. Caggiula, Nadia Chaudhri, Alan F. Sved, Laure Craven, and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Sucrose, Reinforcement Schedule, Time Factors, Self Administration, Pharmacology, Stimulus (physiology), Rats, Sprague-Dawley, chemistry.chemical_compound, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Neurotransmitter, Reinforcement, Motivation, Behavior, Animal, Alkaloid, Association Learning, Classical conditioning, Tobacco Use Disorder, Rats, chemistry, Anesthesia, Conditioning, Operant, Conditioning, Self-administration, Psychology, Reinforcement, Psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: Nicotine self-administration in rats is modest when response-contingent nicotine infusions are delivered alone (primary reinforcement) but robust when nicotine infusions are combined with a mildly reinforcing non-pharmacological stimulus. Furthermore, response-independent (non-contingent) nicotine administration also elevates responding for that same non-pharmacological stimulus, suggesting that in addition to primary reinforcement, nicotine can enhance the incentive value of other reinforcers. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the reinforcement-enhancing effects of non-contingent nicotine are more dependent on the reinforcing strength of the non-pharmacological stimulus than are the effects of contingent nicotine. A weakly reinforcing light-tone stimulus was established as a conditioned reinforcer by repeated pairings with sucrose for some rats, or by delivery in an explicitly unpaired design with sucrose to other rats. Subsequently, both groups lever pressed for the stimulus with contingent nicotine, non-contingent nicotine (0.06 mg kg−1 per infusion, freebase), or non-contingent saline, according to fixed ratio and progressive ratio reinforcement schedules. Compared to sucrose-unpaired training, repeated association with sucrose established the light-tone stimulus as a robust conditioned reinforcer. Contingent and non-contingent nicotine equally elevated responding for this conditioned stimulus. Conversely, for the less reinforcing (sucrose-unpaired) stimulus contingent nicotine more effectively elevated behavior compared to non-contingent nicotine. The reinforcement-enhancing effect of nicotine increases behavior controlled by both conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers; however, for less salient stimuli associative processes derived from the primary reinforcing effects of contingent nicotine may also be important. These data suggest that nicotine present in tobacco may differentially modulate stimulus-driven behavior in smokers.
Published: 2006

18. Rats’ novel object interaction as a measure of environmental familiarity

Author: Jamie L. Wilkinson, Rick A. Bevins, Laura Herrman, and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Health (social science), Novel object, Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition, Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, complex mixtures, Object (philosophy), Education, Developmental psychology, Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Context learning, bacteria, Animal behavior, Test interpretation, Habituation, Psychology
Abstract: Environmental familiarization is a learning phenomenon embedded within most tasks used to study learning and motivation. Given its prevalence there is surprisingly little systematic behavioral research on factors affecting familiarization. The six experiments reported in the present report used rats’ tendency to interact more with a novel object in a familiar than in a novel environment as a measure of environmental familiarization. We found that 3 min of exposure to the environment was sufficient to increase object interaction above unfamiliar controls even when testing occurred up to 48 h after initial exposure to the environment; 1 or 1.5 min of exposure was not sufficient. Also, in the brief 2 min test, 10 min of environment exposure did not appear to increase object interaction above the 3-min condition. The 3-min of environment exposure was sufficient for familiarization whether environment exposure occurred in one 3 min placement or two 1.5 min placements. Environmental familiarization as measured by object interaction was also sensitive to ‘interference’ manipulations. That is, a distinct object present during initial exposure to the environment produced a level of object interaction in testing comparable to an unfamiliar control. Similarly, exposure to a second distinct alternate environment immediately after , but not before , initial exposure to the test environment partially disrupted environmental familiarization. In sum, object interaction might serve as a useful measure for studying processes mediating environmental familiarity.
Published: 2006

19. Preexposure to nicotine alters the subsequent locomotor stimulant effects of bupropion in rats

Author: Rick A. Bevins, Matthew I. Palmatier, and Jamie L. Wilkinson
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, medicine.medical_treatment, Pharmacology, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Random Allocation, Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors, Dopamine, mental disorders, medicine, Animals, Bupropion, Saline, Behavior, Animal, business.industry, Dopaminergic, Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health, Rats, Stimulant, Disease Models, Animal, behavior and behavior mechanisms, Smoking cessation, Home cage, Central Nervous System Stimulants, business, Locomotion, psychological phenomena and processes, medicine.drug
Abstract: Little is known about the interaction between nicotine and bupropion (Zyban), but many studies suggest they have neurological and behavioral similarities. One feature of drugs with common profiles is the ability to cross-sensitize possibly through neurological changes in the reward pathway. Activation of this pathway might explain the effectiveness of bupropion as a smoking cessation aid. The present research investigated whether repeated nicotine administration altered the subsequent locomotor effects of bupropion. In experiment 1, rats were preexposed to nicotine (0.4 mg/kg subcutaneously) or saline on eight separate occasions in the home cage and then tested with bupropion (0, 20, or 30 mg/kg) in locomotor chambers. The acute stimulant effect of 30 mg/kg of bupropion was potentiated by nicotine preexposure. In experiment 2, rats received nicotine repeatedly paired with the locomotor chambers or home cages. An additive effect was observed between acute bupropion and nicotine-conditioned hyperactivity in the chamber-paired group. This enhancement of the acute locomotor effects of bupropion might reflect alterations in common dopaminergic processes.
Published: 2006

20. Extending the Role of Associative Learning Processes in Nicotine Addiction

Author: Matthew I. Palmatier and Rick A. Bevins
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, Cognitive Neuroscience, Conditioning, Classical, Stimulus (physiology), Affect (psychology), Developmental psychology, Nicotine, 03 medical and health sciences, Behavioral Neuroscience, 0302 clinical medicine, Recurrence, medicine, Humans, Reinforcement, Associative property, Association Learning, Classical conditioning, Tobacco Use Disorder, medicine.disease, Associative learning, Psychotherapy, Substance abuse, Affect, 030104 developmental biology, Cues, Psychological Theory, Psychology, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery, Cognitive psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: Compulsive smoking is a worldwide public health problem. Although research has confirmed the importance of associative learning processes in nicotine addiction, therapies targeting nicotine-associated cues still have a high relapse rate. Most theories conceptualize nicotine as an ‘outcome’ that reinforces behaviors and/or changes the affective value of stimuli. Albeit important, this view does not capture the complexity of associative processes involved in nicotine addiction. For example, nicotine serves as a conditional stimulus acquiring new appetitive/affective properties when paired with a non-drug reward. Also, nicotine functions as an occasion setter that participates in higher-order associative processes that likely permit a more pervasive influence of conditioned cues that are resistant to typically cue-exposure therapy techniques. Finally, nicotine appears to amplify the salience of other stimuli that have some incentive value resulting in enhanced nicotine selfadministration and conditioned reinforcement processes. Future smoking intervention strategies should take into consideration these additional associative learning processes.
Published: 2004

21. Nicotine serves as a feature-positive modulator of Pavlovian appetitive conditioning in rats

Author: Rick A. Bevins, Jessica L Peterson, Matthew I. Palmatier, and Jamie L. Wilkinson
Subjects: Pharmacology, Stimulus (physiology), Nicotine, Psychiatry and Mental health, chemistry.chemical_compound, Nicotinic agonist, chemistry, Opioid, Mecamylamine, medicine, Hexamethonium, Nicotinic Antagonist, Psychology, Acetylcholine, medicine.drug
Abstract: The present experiments examined whether a nicotine state could set the occasion for a pairing between visual cues and a rewarding outcome in rats. Following nicotine administration, presentation of a conditional stimulus (CS; light-on) was followed by brief access to a sucrose solution. When saline was administered, the same CS was presented but was not followed by any consequence. In Experiment 1, two groups assessed whether rats could acquire this Pavlovian feature-positive discrimination via different training procedures. An anticipatory food-seeking conditioned response (CR) developed during the CS on nicotine sessions but not on saline sessions in both groups. In Experiment 2, centrally acting antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine and opiate receptors (mecamylamine and naloxone, respectively) dose-dependently blocked nicotine's control of the CR, whereas the peripherally acting nicotinic antagonist hexamethonium had no effect. Increasing or decreasing the interval between nicotine administration and testing also attenuated the CR. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that nicotine can occasion appetitive Pavlovian relations via its action at central nervous system cholinergic receptors.
Published: 2004

22. Nicotine-conditioned locomotor sensitization in rats: assessment of the US-preexposure effect

Author: Rick A. Bevins and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Differential Threshold, Context (language use), Motor Activity, Pharmacology, Developmental psychology, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Behavioral Neuroscience, chemistry.chemical_compound, Dopamine, Conditioning, Psychological, medicine, Animals, Neurotransmitter, Sensitization, Analysis of Variance, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Association Learning, Classical conditioning, Rats, medicine.anatomical_structure, chemistry, Conditioning, Cues, Psychology, Acetylcholine, medicine.drug
Abstract: In rats, stimulus–nicotine associations can be altered by preexposure to the nicotine US (unconditioned stimulus). This alteration differs with the conditioning preparation. In a conditioned taste avoidance preparation, preexposure to nicotine weakens conditioning. In contrast, nicotine preexposure enhances acquisition of a nicotine-conditioned place preference. No one has examined the effects of US preexposure on nicotine locomotor conditioning. In three separate experiments, we assessed the effects of nicotine preexposure on the subsequent expression of conditioned hyperactivity produced by a nicotine US. We found evidence for nicotine-conditioned locomotor sensitization in non-preexposed rats that received repeated pairings of a distinct context with the psychomotor effects of a 0.42 mg/kg dose of nicotine (free base). Conditioning was not observed at lower nicotine doses (0.18 and 0.11 mg/kg) in non-preexposed rats. Preexposure to the 0.42 and 0.18 mg/kg doses of nicotine (3 or 9 days) attenuated acute locomotor suppression and enhanced the development of locomotor sensitization to that same dose. Despite similar qualitative shifts in the locomotor profile induced by preexposure to the nicotine US, conditioned hyperactivity was only altered after 3 or 9 days of preexposure at the 0.18 mg/kg dose. Thus, similar to place conditioning, nicotine preexposure can enhance the subsequent effectiveness of the nicotine US in a locomotor conditioning preparation.
Published: 2003

23. Impact of brief or extended extinction of a taste aversion on inhibitory associations: Evidence from summation, retardation, and preference tests

Author: Jonna L. Bowker, Douglas C. Brooks, Jenise E. Anderson, and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Male, medicine.medical_specialty, Time Factors, Interference theory, Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, Audiology, Inhibitory postsynaptic potential, Choice Behavior, Extinction, Psychological, Developmental psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, chemistry.chemical_compound, Saccharin, Latent inhibition, Conditioning, Psychological, medicine, Animals, Rats, Wistar, General Psychology, Extinction (psychology), Preference, Rats, Inhibition, Psychological, Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology, chemistry, Sweetening Agents, Taste aversion, Conditioning, Animal Science and Zoology, Psychology, psychological phenomena and processes
Abstract: In five conditioned taste aversion experiments with rats, summation, retardation, and preference tests were used to assess the effects of extinguishing a conditioned saccharin aversion for three or nine trials. In Experiment 1, a summation test showed that saccharin aversion extinguished over nine trials reduced the aversion to a merely conditioned flavor (vinegar), whereas three saccharin extinction trials did not subsequently influence the vinegar aversion. Experiment 2 clarified that result, with unpaired controls equated on flavor exposure prior to testing; the results with those controls suggested that the flavor extinguished for nine trials produced generalization decrement during testing. In Experiment 3, the saccharin aversion reconditioned slowly after nine extinction trials, but not after three. Those results suggested the development of latent inhibition after more than three extinction trials. Preference tests comparing saccharin consumption with a concurrently available fluid (water in Experiment 4, saline in Experiment 5) showed that the preference for saccharin was greater after nine extinction trials than after three. However, saccharin preference after nine extinction trials was not greater, as compared with that for either latent inhibition controls (Experiments 4 and 5) or a control given equated exposures to saccharin and trained to drink saline at a high rate prior to testing (Experiment 5). Concerns about whether conditioned inhibition has been demonstrated in any flavor aversion procedure are discussed. Our findings help explain both successes and failures in demonstrating post-extinction conditioned response recovery effects reported in the conditioned taste aversion literature, and they can be explained using a memory interference account.
Published: 2003

24. Novel-object place conditioning: behavioral and dopaminergic processes in expression of novelty reward

Author: Matthew I. Palmatier, Sarah Eurek, Katherine S Pickett, Joyce Besheer, Rick A. Bevins, and Heather C Jensen
Subjects: Male, Dopamine, Environment, Motor Activity, Generalization, Psychological, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Behavioral Neuroscience, Eticlopride, Reward, Preference test, Salicylamides, Animals, Association (psychology), Communication, Behavior, Animal, Receptors, Dopamine D2, business.industry, Receptors, Dopamine D1, Dopaminergic, Receptors, Dopamine D3, Novelty, Classical conditioning, Benzazepines, Preference, Rats, Conditioning, Operant, Dopamine Antagonists, Conditioning, Cues, Psychology, business, Neuroscience
Abstract: In a choice situation, rats given repeated access to novel objects in one of two distinct environments display an increase in preference for the novelty-paired environment. The experiments in this present report extend the generality of this effect to new procedures. Further, this shift in preference depends on object novelty; no systematic shift in preference was observed if the environment was paired with a familiar object. Experiments in the present report also provided evidence against non-associative accounts that rely on mechanisms that leave the paired environment more novel than the unpaired environment (e.g. object interaction interfering with environmental familiarization). Consistent with a conditioning account is the loss of place conditioning when access time with the novel objects was shortened from 10 min to 5 or 2.5 min. Interestingly, although a decrease in time with objects prevented place conditioning, these groups showed a novelty-conditioned increase in activity. Finally, treatment with the dopamine D(1) antagonist SCH-23390 (0.03 mg/kg) or the dopamine D(2)/D(3) antagonist eticlopride (0.1 mg/kg) before the post-conditioning preference test blocked expression of the novel-object place conditioning. Taken together, these experiments establish that the increased preference produced by object-environment pairings reflects a conditioned association between environmental cues and the appetitive effects of receiving access to novel stimuli.
Published: 2002

25. Examination of GABAergic and Dopaminergic Compounds in the Acquisition of Nicotine-Conditioned Hyperactivity in Rats

Author: Rick A. Bevins and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Male, Agonist, Baclofen, Nicotine, medicine.drug_class, Conditioning, Classical, Motor Activity, Pharmacology, Receptors, Dopamine, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, chemistry.chemical_compound, Eticlopride, Dopamine, Salicylamides, medicine, Animals, GABA Agonists, Biological Psychiatry, Muscle Relaxants, Central, business.industry, Receptors, Dopamine D1, Dopaminergic, Receptors, Dopamine D3, Antagonist, Benzazepines, Receptor antagonist, Rats, Dopamine D2 Receptor Antagonists, Psychiatry and Mental health, Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology, Receptors, GABA-B, nervous system, chemistry, Dopamine Antagonists, business, GABA-B Receptor Antagonists, medicine.drug
Abstract: In rats, a distinct environment repeatedly paired with nicotine (0.421 mg/kg base, s.c.) comes to evoke an increase in activity in the absence of any drug. This hyperactivity indicates a Pavlovian-conditioned association between the environment and nicotine. We investigated whether a dopamine D1 receptor antagonist (SCH-23390), a D2/D3 antagonist (eticlopride) or a GABAB agonist (baclofen) would prevent the acquisition of nicotine-conditioned hyperactivity. In saline-pretreated rats, acute nicotine suppressed activity during the conditioning phase (i.e. environment-nicotine pairings); chronic nicotine stimulated activity. Pretreatment with SCH-23390 (0.01 mg/kg, i.p.) attenuated the activating effects of nicotine without affecting controls. Eticlopride (0.03–0.07 mg/kg, i.p.) and baclofen (0.625 and 1.25 mg/kg, i.p.) did not affect nicotine-induced activity in a selective manner. Regardless of the pretreatment drug, rats acquired the environment-nicotine association as indexed in a drug-free test. The inability of SCH-23390 to block the acquisition of nicotine-conditioned locomotor activity is notable because in past research SCH-23390 blocked expression of the learned association.
Published: 2002

26. Differentiating the primary reinforcing and reinforcement-enhancing effects of varenicline

Author: Eric C. Donny, Matthew T. Weaver, Rachel L. Schassburger, Anthony R. Caggiula, Melissa E. Levin, Matthew I. Palmatier, and Alan F. Sved
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Reinforcement Schedule, medicine.medical_treatment, Self Administration, Pharmacology, Partial agonist, Article, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, chemistry.chemical_compound, Quinoxalines, medicine, Animals, Nicotinic Agonists, Reinforcement, Varenicline, Nicotinic Receptors, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Benzazepines, Rats, Nicotinic agonist, chemistry, Smoking cessation, Conditioning, Operant, Smoking Cessation, Cues, Psychology, Self-administration, Reinforcement, Psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: Varenicline (VAR), a smoking cessation aid that is a partial agonist at nicotinic receptors, mimics the reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine. Varenicline, when accompanied by non-drug cues, is self-administered by rats, though it is unclear whether this results from varenicline acting as a primary reinforcer or a reinforcement enhancer of the cues.This study sought to disentangle these two potential actions.Rats were allowed to self-administer intravenous nicotine, saline, or varenicline during 1-h sessions in operant chambers equipped with two levers. Five groups had concurrent access to drug infusions and a moderately reinforcing visual stimulus (VS) for responding on separate levers. Meeting the reinforcement schedule on one lever was reinforced with VAR (0.01, 0.06, 0.1 mg/kg/infusion), nicotine (0.06 mg/kg/infusion), or saline, while meeting the same schedule on the other lever delivered the VS. Additional groups were reinforced for pressing a single "active" lever and received VAR paired with the VS, the VS with response-independent infusions of VAR, or VAR alone (0.1 mg/kg/infusion).Rats readily responded for VAR paired with VS on a single lever. However, when VAR was the only reinforcer contingent on a response, rats did not respond more than for saline.These findings show that VAR does not serve as a primary reinforcer in rats at doses that increase responding for non-drug reinforcers. These data are consistent with research showing that the primary reinforcing effects of VAR are weak, at best, and that the primary reinforcing and reinforcement-enhancing actions of nicotinic drugs are pharmacologically distinct.
Published: 2014

27. The incentive amplifying effects of nicotine are reduced by selective and non-selective dopamine antagonists in rats

Author: Marissa R. Kellicut, A. Brianna Sheppard, Russell W. Brown, Matthew I. Palmatier, and Donita L. Robinson
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, medicine.medical_treatment, Conditioning, Classical, Clinical Biochemistry, Flupenthixol, Pharmacology, Toxicology, Biochemistry, Article, Behavioral Neuroscience, Eticlopride, Dopamine, Salicylamides, medicine, Animals, Drug Interactions, Biological Psychiatry, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Dopaminergic, Antagonist, Classical conditioning, Benzazepines, Rats, Stimulant, Dopamine Antagonists, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Cues, Psychology, Reinforcement, Psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: Nicotine is a psychomotor stimulant with ‘reinforcement enhancing’ effects – the actions of nicotine in the brain increase responding for non-nicotine rewards. We hypothesized that this latter effect of nicotine depends on increased incentive properties of anticipatory cues; consistent with this hypothesis, multiple laboratories have reported that nicotine increases sign tracking, i.e. approach to a conditioned stimulus (CS), in Pavlovian conditioned-approach tasks. Incentive motivation and sign tracking are mediated by mesolimbic dopamine (DA) transmission and nicotine facilitates mesolimbic DA release. Therefore, we hypothesized that the incentive-promoting effects of nicotine would be impaired by DA antagonists. To test this hypothesis, separate groups of rats were injected with nicotine (0.4 mg/kg base) or saline prior to Pavlovian conditioning sessions in which a CS (30 s illumination of a light or presentation of a lever) was immediately followed by a sweet reward delivered in an adjacent location. Both saline and nicotine pretreated rats exhibited similar levels of conditioned approach to the reward location (goal tracking), but nicotine pretreatment significantly increased approach to the CS (sign tracking), regardless of type (lever or light). The DAD1 antagonist SCH-23390 and the DAD2/3 antagonist eticlopride reduced conditioned approach in all rats, but specifically reduced goal tracking in the saline pretreated rats and sign tracking in the nicotine pretreated rats. The non-selective DA antagonist flupenthixol reduced sign-tracking in nicotine rats at all doses tested; however, only the highest dose of flupenthixol reduced goal tracking in both nicotine and saline groups. The reductions in conditioned approach behavior, especially those by SCH-23390, were dissociated from simple motor suppressant effects of the antagonists. These experiments are the first to investigate the effects of dopaminergic drugs on the facilitation of sign-tracking engendered by nicotine and they implicate dopaminergic systems both in conditioned approach as well as the incentive-promoting effects of nicotine.
Published: 2014
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28. Occasion Setting with Drugs

Author: Matthew I. Palmatier and Rick A. Bevins
Published: 2014

29. Chronic caffeine exposure in rats blocks a subsequent nicotine-conditioned taste avoidance in a one-bottle, but not a two-bottle test

Author: Rick A. Bevins and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Male, Nicotine, Taste, medicine.medical_treatment, Clinical Biochemistry, Drinking, Pharmacology, Toxicology, Biochemistry, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Behavioral Neuroscience, chemistry.chemical_compound, Saccharin, Caffeine, Conditioning, Psychological, Avoidance Learning, medicine, Animals, Saline, Biological Psychiatry, business.industry, Alkaloid, Classical conditioning, Ganglionic Stimulants, Bottle Feeding, Rats, chemistry, Sweetening Agents, Toxicity, Central Nervous System Stimulants, business, psychological phenomena and processes, medicine.drug
Abstract: Two experiments were conducted in order to investigate nicotine-conditioned taste avoidance (CTA) following chronic preexposure to caffeine. Rats were given daily intraperitoneal injections of caffeine anhydrous (0, 10, or 30 mg/kg) for 10 or 30 days. Training of the nicotine-CTA began after the last day of caffeine preexposure. On five separate occasions access to a saccharin solution was followed immediately by an injection of 1.2 mg/kg nicotine hydrogen tartrate salt or saline. Nicotine-CTA readily developed in saline-preexposed controls. That is, paired rats drank less saccharin solution than unpaired rats after repeated saccharin-nicotine pairings. A similar pattern of nicotine-CTA was found for rats preexposed to 30 mg/kg caffeine for 10 days. Following 10 days of preexposure to 10 mg/kg caffeine, however, CTA did not develop under standard testing conditions. Thirty days of caffeine preexposure did not affect the development of a nicotine-CTA even though the anorexic effects of caffeine were evident after exposure to 30 mg/kg for this duration. Thus, caffeine exposure appears to weaken acquisition or expression of the conditioned avoidance properties of nicotine. This effect is sensitive to the dose of caffeine and duration of preexposure. Importantly, the pattern of nicotine-CTA does not appear to be due to nonspecific effects of caffeine.
Published: 2001

30. An extinction cue reduces spontaneous recovery of a conditioned taste aversion

Author: Jessica L. Johnson, Douglas C. Brooks, Eliseo O. Garcia, and Matthew I. Palmatier
Subjects: Conditioned inhibition, Spontaneous recovery, Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, social sciences, Extinction (psychology), humanities, Developmental psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, chemistry.chemical_compound, Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology, chemistry, Extinction memory, Taste aversion, Conditioning, Animal Science and Zoology, Psychology, Saccharin, Neuroscience, General Psychology
Abstract: The effect of an auditory cue presented during extinction on spontaneous recovery of a conditioned taste aversion was investigated in three experiments. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the presence of the cue during extinction did not influence saccharin consumption during that phase, and that an aversion to saccharin in the absence of the cue was stronger at 18 days than at 1 day after extinction, representing spontaneous recovery rather than a renewal effect. Experiment 2 showed that a cue presented during extinction and testing reduced spontaneous recovery. Experiment 3 replicated that effect and showed that it depended on the cue’s correlation with extinction and not on an unconditioned effect; cues that had been presented during or prior to conditioning did not reduce spontaneous recovery when presented during testing. The cue’s potential to reduce spontaneous recovery through conditioned inhibition or configural cue learning is discussed, as is the possibility that the cue retrieves a saccharin extinction memory in a manner consistent with Bouton’s (1993) account of spontaneous recovery.
Published: 1999

31. Effects of Nicotine on Olfactogustatory Incentives: Preference, Palatability, and Operant Choice Tests

Author: Laura C. O’Brien, Matthew I. Palmatier, Jaden E. Lantz, and Sarah P. Metz
Subjects: Male, Taste, Nicotine, Sucrose, Choice Behavior, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, chemistry.chemical_compound, medicine, Animals, Palatability, Food science, Reinforcement, Original Investigation, Behavior, Animal, Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health, Classical conditioning, Preference, Rats, Incentive, chemistry, Psychology, Menthol, Reinforcement, Psychology, medicine.drug
Abstract: INTRODUCTION The use of additives in tobacco may capitalize on the incentive motivational properties of tastes and scents such as mint (menthol), vanilla, and strawberry. These incentives are intended to increase tobacco experimentation, but their salience may also be enhanced by the incentive amplifying effects of nicotine (NIC). The goal of the present studies was to investigate the potential interaction between the incentive amplifying effects of NIC and gustatory incentives. METHODS One of two discriminable tastes (grape or cherry Kool-Aid®; 0.05% wt/vol; unsweetened) was paired with sucrose (20% wt/vol; conditioned stimulus [CS+]) in deionized water, whereas the other taste (CS-) was presented in deionized water. Experiment 1 investigated the effects of NIC pretreatment on preference for the CS+ versus CS- in 2-bottle choice tests. Experiment 2 investigated the effects of NIC on palatability of the CS+ and CS- using orofacial taste reactions. Experiment 3 investigated the effects of NIC on reinforcement by the CS+ and CS- using a concurrent choice operant task. RESULTS NIC pretreatment robustly increased operant responding for the CS+ but did not alter responding for the CS- in the operant choice task (Experiment 3). However, NIC pretreatment did not alter intake or palatability of the CS+ or CS- (Experiments 1 and 2). CONCLUSIONS NIC increases the reinforcing effects of gustatory incentive stimuli, even though these stimuli were not paired with NIC administration. The findings suggest that adding taste incentives to tobacco products may increase the attractiveness of these products to consumers and the probability of repeated use.
Published: 2013

32. Dementias and Other Amnestic Disorders

Author: Nicola Simola, Micaela Morelli, Tooru Mizuno, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, H. Valerie Curran, Celia J. A. Morgan, Stephan G. Anagnostaras, Jennifer R Sage, Stephanie A Carmack, Lawrence H. Price, Grasielle C Kincheski, Leandro J Bertoglio, Antonio Padua Carobrez, Andrea Bari, Roshan Cools, Yogita Chudasama, Stefan Leucht, William Breitbart, Yesne Alici, Karl Mann, Falk Kiefer, Michael M Morgan, M J Christie, Istvan Bitter, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P Roiser, Darren R Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Kenneth J. Rhodes, Peter Paul De Deyn, Debby Van Dam, Darrel J. Pemberton, Johannes Mosbacher, Thomas Steckler, Alyson J Bond, Alex Hofer, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S Hurst, Irwin Lucki, Fadi T. Maalouf, David A. Brent, Fadi Maalouf, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, Andrew Young, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Linda P Spear, Mohammed Shoaib, Emma Childs, Britta Hahn, Peter Boeijinga, Martine Cador, David S Tait, Verity J. Brown, David Baldwin, Yavin Shaham, Sunila G Nair, Matthew I Palmatier, Rick A Bevins, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Mark Geyer, Anthony Absalom, David Menon, Joseph Zohar, Stephen C Fowler, James Winslow, Kim Wolff, Bankole A. Johnson, Martina de Zwaan, Angela Roberts, Anthony R Isles, Lawrence S. Wilkinson, Rosa M M de Almeida, Klaus A. Miczek, Eric Nestler, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Bankole A Johnson, Joseph H Friedman, István Bitter, Michael Minzenberg, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi Fineberg, MacDonald J. Christie, Joris C. Verster, Bernard Le Foll, Marilyn E Carroll, Peter A Santi, Ronald F Mucha, Ian P. Stolerman, Richard W Foltin, Christoph Hiemke, Luis Stinus, Stéphanie Caillé, John R Mantsch, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Brian E. Leonard, R. Andrew Chambers, Gail Winger, Mei-Chuan Ko, James H Woods, Seiya Miyamoto, Thomas R. E. Barnes, Kieran O’Malley, and David J. Hellerstein
Published: 2010

33. Stress-Response

Author: Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Luis De Lecea, Jason C. G. Halford, Josee E. Leysen, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhusi, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Richard W. Foltin, David C. S. Roberts, Andreas Marneros, Alex Hofer, Bart Ellenbroek, Christoph U. Correll, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Joris C. Verster, Emma Childs, Gary Remington, Edoardo Spina, W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Sheldon Preskorn, Megan M. Dahmen, Jana Lincoln, Dan J. Stein, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Angela Roberts, Marilyn E. Carroll, Peter A. Santi, Stefan Leucht, Klaus A. Miczek, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P. Roiser, Celia J. A. Morgan, Valerie H. Curran, Mary E. Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Terry E. Robinson, Ian Hindmarch, Darrell D. Mousseau, Andrew Holt, Glen B. Baker, Sidney H. Kennedy, Sakina J. Rizvi, Thomas Steckler, Seiya Miyamoto, Sakire Pogun, Gorkem Yararbas, Jill B. Becker, Anders Ågmo, Vera Astreika, Robert Segraves, Rodrigo Andrade, Yogita Chudasama, Roshan Cools, Iván Izquierdo, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Bernard Le Foll, Trevor W. Robbins, Husseini K. Manji, Jorge A. Quiroz, Jos Prickaerts, Ennio Esposito, William Invernizzi, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Peter J. Flor, Inga D. Neumann, Malcolm Lader, Joseph Zohar, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, Milton Kramer, Michael J. Thorpy, Shelby Freedman Harris, D. Warren Spence, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Samuel B. Hutton, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, S. Kasper, Frank Sams-Dodd, Yavin Shaham, John R. Mantsch, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Paul D. Callaghan, Iain S. McGregor, Murray R. Thompson, Michel Billiard, Brian A. Fallon, Kelli J. Harding, Daniel Hoyer, Jacques Epelbaum, Cécile Viollet, Mischa de Rover, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Stan Floresco, Anne Jackson, Mitul A. Mehta, Johannes Mosbacher, Ronald L. Cowan, Robert Kessler, Peter H. Boeijinga, James Winslow, A. Claudio Cuello, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi A. Fineberg, Mark A. Geyer, Francis C. Colpaert, Andrew Young, Ronald F. Mucha, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Marc N. Branch, Ian P. Stolerman, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sunila G. Nair, Becky Kinkead, Charles B. Nemeroff, Lucy C. Guillory, R. H. De Rijk, E. R. de Kloet, Francisco Aboitiz, Ximena Carrasco, F. Xavier Castellanos, Maria Isabel Colado, A. Richard Green, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, Alyson J. Bond, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Caroline Cohen, Marc Turiault, Guy Griebel, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael J. Owens, Chase H. Bourke, Gustavo Turecki, Britta Hahn, Sarah Morgan, Angus Mackay, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Lawrence Scahill, Andrea Bari, Stephen B. Dunnett, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, R. Andrew Chambers, and David E. Nichols
Published: 2010

34. Cannabis Addiction

Author: Daniel Hoyer, Eric P Zorrilla, Pietro Cottone, Sarah Parylak, Micaela Morelli, Nicola Simola, James D. Lane, Michael M Morgan, M J Christie, Cecilia J. Hillard, Alan J. Budney, Ryan G. Vandrey, Trevor Robbins, Paolo Nencini, Michele Stanislaw Milella, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Victoria L Harvey, Tony Dickenson, Seiya Miyamoto, Osborne Almeida, Nuno Sousa, S Yu, Anthony Absalom, David Menon, Pedro L. Delgado, Cyril Höschl, Tara L White, Richard Depue, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Peter J Flor, Inga Neumann, Craig A Erickson, David J Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Etienne Sibille, Nicole Edgar, Malcolm Lader, Theodora Duka, Emma Childs, Britta Hahn, Jaanus Harro, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Yesne Alici, William Breitbart, Eric Nestler, Anthony R Isles, Lawrence Wilkinson, Subhash Pandey, Samuel G. Siris, Paul Willner, Michel Billiard, Björn Lemmer, Jean-Michel Scherrmann, Lawrence H. Price, Tomek J Banasikowski, Richard J Beninger, John Harvey, Brian E. Leonard, Kim Wolff, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi Fineberg, Warren H Meck, Catalin V Buhushi, Lance Richard McMahon, Yogita Chudasama, Michael Kuhar, Joachim D. Uys, Peter W. Kalivas, Mohammed Shoaib, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S Hurst, Michael Bloch, James F Leckman, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Anne Jackson, Ben J Harrison, Christos Pantelis, Ian Hindmarch, Alyson J Bond, Jaime M Monti, Darren R Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Marcy J Bubar, Kathryn A Cunningham, Christine A Franco, Marc Potenza, Maria-Inés López-Ibor, Juan J López-Ibor, Joseph H Friedman, Alex Hofer, Tomek J. Banasikowski, Richard J. Beninger, Matthew I Palmatier, Rick A Bevins, Thomas Tzschentke, David Roberts, Stephan Anagnostaras, Jennifer R Sage, Stephanie A Carmack, Stephen J. Kohut, Anthony L. Riley, Ronald F. Mucha, Jos Prickaerts, Oliver Stiedl, Sven Ove Ögren, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D Stewart, Patrick M Sexton, Yavin Shaham, Sunila G Nair, Sarah H Heil, Stacey C Sigmon, Stephen T. Higgins, Sarah H. Heil, Stacey C. Sigmon, Marc N Branch, Mary Cain, Michael T Bardo, Robert L Balster, Sharon Walsh, Roel de Rijk, Ronald De Kloet, Chase H. Bourke, Michael J. Owens, Cécile Viollet, Jacques Epelbaum, Karl Mann, Falk Kiefer, Michael Owens, Chase Bourke, Hamish McAllister-Williams, Andreas Marneros, Rodrigo Andrade, Ivan Izquierdo, Lia Rejane M Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Christoph Hiemke, Maria Isabel Colado, and Richard Green
Published: 2010

35. Emotional Learning

Author: Bart Ellenbroek, Alfonso Abizaid, Shimon Amir, Martina de Zwaan, Sarah Parylak, Pietro Cottone, Eric P. Zorrilla, Lawrence H. Price, Ben J. Harrison, Christos Pantelis, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Ian P. Stolerman, Nicola Simola, Micaela Morelli, Michael H. Bloch, Sarah Morgan, Angus Mackay, Gary Remington, Sidney H. Kennedy, Sakina J. Rizvi, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Mitul A. Mehta, Ennio Esposito, Roberto William Invernizzi, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Lynette C. Daws, Anne M. Andrews, Greg A. Gerhardt, Mischa de Rover, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Peter H. Boeijinga, Victoria L. Harvey, Anthony H. Dickenson, Peter Verheart, Per Svenningsson, Per E. Andrén, Antonio Pádua Carobrez, Grasielle C. Kincheski, Leandro J. Bertoglio, Kim Wolff, Iván Izquierdo, Lia Rejane M. Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, David H. Zald, Oliver Stiedl, Sven Ove Ögren, Joseph Zohar, Alan J. Budney, Cecilia J. Hillard, Josee E. Leysen, Samuel B. Hutton, Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Paul Willner, Jason C. G. Halford, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Francis C. Colpaert, Daniel Hoyer, Paul D. Callaghan, Iain S. McGregor, Murray R. Thompson, Mary E. Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Christoph Hiemke, Lawrence S. Wilkinson, Anthony R. Isles, Celia J. A. Morgan, Valerie H. Curran, Mark Slifstein, Jos Prickaerts, David E. Nichols, Marc N. Branch, Mohammed Shoaib, Jill B. Becker, Marilyn E. Carroll, Peter A. Santi, Juan J. López-Ibor, Maria-Inés López-Ibor, Berend Olivier, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Seiya Miyamoto, Bernard Le Foll, Cyril Höschl, David S. Baldwin, Thomas Steckler, Michel Billiard, Linda Lundström, Will Spooren, Silvia Gatti McArthur, Darrel J. Pemberton, Andrea Bari, Amee B. Patel, Kim Fromme, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, David S. Tait, Verity J. Brown, and W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker
Published: 2010

36. CS

Author: Daniel Hoyer, Eric P Zorrilla, Pietro Cottone, Sarah Parylak, Micaela Morelli, Nicola Simola, James D. Lane, Michael M Morgan, M J Christie, Cecilia J. Hillard, Alan J. Budney, Ryan G. Vandrey, Trevor Robbins, Paolo Nencini, Michele Stanislaw Milella, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Victoria L Harvey, Tony Dickenson, Seiya Miyamoto, Osborne Almeida, Nuno Sousa, S Yu, Anthony Absalom, David Menon, Pedro L. Delgado, Cyril Höschl, Tara L White, Richard Depue, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Peter J Flor, Inga Neumann, Craig A Erickson, David J Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Etienne Sibille, Nicole Edgar, Malcolm Lader, Theodora Duka, Emma Childs, Britta Hahn, Jaanus Harro, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Yesne Alici, William Breitbart, Eric Nestler, Anthony R Isles, Lawrence Wilkinson, Subhash Pandey, Samuel G. Siris, Paul Willner, Michel Billiard, Björn Lemmer, Jean-Michel Scherrmann, Lawrence H. Price, Tomek J Banasikowski, Richard J Beninger, John Harvey, Brian E. Leonard, Kim Wolff, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi Fineberg, Warren H Meck, Catalin V Buhushi, Lance Richard McMahon, Yogita Chudasama, Michael Kuhar, Joachim D. Uys, Peter W. Kalivas, Mohammed Shoaib, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S Hurst, Michael Bloch, James F Leckman, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Anne Jackson, Ben J Harrison, Christos Pantelis, Ian Hindmarch, Alyson J Bond, Jaime M Monti, Darren R Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Marcy J Bubar, Kathryn A Cunningham, Christine A Franco, Marc Potenza, Maria-Inés López-Ibor, Juan J López-Ibor, Joseph H Friedman, Alex Hofer, Tomek J. Banasikowski, Richard J. Beninger, Matthew I Palmatier, Rick A Bevins, Thomas Tzschentke, David Roberts, Stephan Anagnostaras, Jennifer R Sage, Stephanie A Carmack, Stephen J. Kohut, Anthony L. Riley, Ronald F. Mucha, Jos Prickaerts, Oliver Stiedl, Sven Ove Ögren, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D Stewart, Patrick M Sexton, Yavin Shaham, Sunila G Nair, Sarah H Heil, Stacey C Sigmon, Stephen T. Higgins, Sarah H. Heil, Stacey C. Sigmon, Marc N Branch, Mary Cain, Michael T Bardo, Robert L Balster, Sharon Walsh, Roel de Rijk, Ronald De Kloet, Chase H. Bourke, Michael J. Owens, Cécile Viollet, Jacques Epelbaum, Karl Mann, Falk Kiefer, Michael Owens, Chase Bourke, Hamish McAllister-Williams, Andreas Marneros, Rodrigo Andrade, Ivan Izquierdo, Lia Rejane M Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Christoph Hiemke, Maria Isabel Colado, and Richard Green
Published: 2010

37. Punished Behavior

Author: R. Hamish McAllister-Williams, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S. Hurst, Linda P. Spear, Tim C. Kirkham, Thomas Steckler, Delphine Capdevielle, Jean-Philippe Boulenger, Cyril Höschl, Martine Cador, Ben J. Harrison, Christos Pantelis, Anthony Riley, Steve Kohut, Alex Hofer, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, D. Warren Spence, Shelby Freedman Harris, Michael J. Thorpy, Milton Kramer, Ian Stolerman, Holden D. Brown, Michael Ragozzino, Klaus A. Miczek, Anne Jackson, Sven Ove Ögren, Oliver Stiedl, Paul R. Pentel, Mark LeSage, Victoria L. Harvey, Tony Dickenson, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Gail Winger, Mei-Chuan Ko, James H. Woods, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Stephan G. Anagnostaras, Jennifer R. Sage, Stephanie A. Carmack, Jos Prickaerts, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhushi, Christoph U. Correll, Mohammed Shoaib, Trevor Robbins, Daniel Hoyer, Luzio Tremolizzo, Gessica Sala, Carlo Ferrarese, Seiya Miyamoto, David S. Tait, Verity J. Brown, Richard A. Depue, Tara L. White, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Jean-Michel Scherrmann, S. Stevens Negus, Dana E. Selley, Laura J. Sim-Selley, Christoph Hiemke, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Pierre Baumann, Kim Wolff, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Alan J. Budney, Robert L. Balster, Sharon Walsh, Andrea Bari, Johannes Mosbacher, Paul Willner, Wolfgang Fleischhacker, Etienne Sibille, Nicole Edgar, Sabine M. Hölter, John F. Cryan, Michel Le Moal, Marco Leyton, Sara Tomlinson, Glen Baker, Bernard Le Foll, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Tomasz Schneider, Yogita Chudasama, Stan Floresco, Marc Potenza, Fabrizio Benedetti, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Lucio Tremolizzo, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Malcolm Lader, Stefan Leucht, Mark Slifstein, Samuel G. Siris, Susan Jones, Peter Verheart, Per Svenningsson, Per Andrén, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Stephen C. Fowler, Harriet de Wit, Britta Hahn, Helen Cassaday, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael Minzenberg, David Baldwin, C. Neill Epperson, Lawrence Scahill, I. T. Uzbay, Lisiane Bizarro, Bart Ellenbroek, Patrick D. McGorry, Alison R. Yung, Mark A. Geyer, Angela Roberts, Celia Morgan, Valerie Curran, Jill B. Becker, Mary Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Theodora Duka, Sam Hutton, Martin Cammarota, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Iván Izquierdo, Husseini Manji, Jorge Quiroz, Per E. Andrén, Peter Verhaert, Joji Suzuki, Torsten Passie, Pedro E. Huertas, John Halpern, Gorkem Yararbas, Sakire Pogun, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Ian Hindmarch, Grasielle C. Kincheski, Leandro J. Bertoglio, Antonio Padua Carobrez, Wiepke Cahn, Heleen B. M. Boos, H. D. Postma, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Marie-Louise Wadenberg, Marc N. Branch, Jeffrey M. Witkin, James E. Barrett, Ivan Izquierdo, and Lia Rejane M. Bevilaqua
Published: 2010

38. Choline Acetyltransferase

Author: Daniel Hoyer, Eric P Zorrilla, Pietro Cottone, Sarah Parylak, Micaela Morelli, Nicola Simola, James D. Lane, Michael M Morgan, M J Christie, Cecilia J. Hillard, Alan J. Budney, Ryan G. Vandrey, Trevor Robbins, Paolo Nencini, Michele Stanislaw Milella, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Victoria L Harvey, Tony Dickenson, Seiya Miyamoto, Osborne Almeida, Nuno Sousa, S Yu, Anthony Absalom, David Menon, Pedro L. Delgado, Cyril Höschl, Tara L White, Richard Depue, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Peter J Flor, Inga Neumann, Craig A Erickson, David J Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Etienne Sibille, Nicole Edgar, Malcolm Lader, Theodora Duka, Emma Childs, Britta Hahn, Jaanus Harro, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Yesne Alici, William Breitbart, Eric Nestler, Anthony R Isles, Lawrence Wilkinson, Subhash Pandey, Samuel G. Siris, Paul Willner, Michel Billiard, Björn Lemmer, Jean-Michel Scherrmann, Lawrence H. Price, Tomek J Banasikowski, Richard J Beninger, John Harvey, Brian E. Leonard, Kim Wolff, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi Fineberg, Warren H Meck, Catalin V Buhushi, Lance Richard McMahon, Yogita Chudasama, Michael Kuhar, Joachim D. Uys, Peter W. Kalivas, Mohammed Shoaib, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S Hurst, Michael Bloch, James F Leckman, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Anne Jackson, Ben J Harrison, Christos Pantelis, Ian Hindmarch, Alyson J Bond, Jaime M Monti, Darren R Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Marcy J Bubar, Kathryn A Cunningham, Christine A Franco, Marc Potenza, Maria-Inés López-Ibor, Juan J López-Ibor, Joseph H Friedman, Alex Hofer, Tomek J. Banasikowski, Richard J. Beninger, Matthew I Palmatier, Rick A Bevins, Thomas Tzschentke, David Roberts, Stephan Anagnostaras, Jennifer R Sage, Stephanie A Carmack, Stephen J. Kohut, Anthony L. Riley, Ronald F. Mucha, Jos Prickaerts, Oliver Stiedl, Sven Ove Ögren, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D Stewart, Patrick M Sexton, Yavin Shaham, Sunila G Nair, Sarah H Heil, Stacey C Sigmon, Stephen T. Higgins, Sarah H. Heil, Stacey C. Sigmon, Marc N Branch, Mary Cain, Michael T Bardo, Robert L Balster, Sharon Walsh, Roel de Rijk, Ronald De Kloet, Chase H. Bourke, Michael J. Owens, Cécile Viollet, Jacques Epelbaum, Karl Mann, Falk Kiefer, Michael Owens, Chase Bourke, Hamish McAllister-Williams, Andreas Marneros, Rodrigo Andrade, Ivan Izquierdo, Lia Rejane M Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Christoph Hiemke, Maria Isabel Colado, and Richard Green
Published: 2010

39. Piracetam

Author: R. Hamish McAllister-Williams, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S. Hurst, Linda P. Spear, Tim C. Kirkham, Thomas Steckler, Delphine Capdevielle, Jean-Philippe Boulenger, Cyril Höschl, Martine Cador, Ben J. Harrison, Christos Pantelis, Anthony Riley, Steve Kohut, Alex Hofer, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, D. Warren Spence, Shelby Freedman Harris, Michael J. Thorpy, Milton Kramer, Ian Stolerman, Holden D. Brown, Michael Ragozzino, Klaus A. Miczek, Anne Jackson, Sven Ove Ögren, Oliver Stiedl, Paul R. Pentel, Mark LeSage, Victoria L. Harvey, Tony Dickenson, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Gail Winger, Mei-Chuan Ko, James H. Woods, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Stephan G. Anagnostaras, Jennifer R. Sage, Stephanie A. Carmack, Jos Prickaerts, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhushi, Christoph U. Correll, Mohammed Shoaib, Trevor Robbins, Daniel Hoyer, Luzio Tremolizzo, Gessica Sala, Carlo Ferrarese, Seiya Miyamoto, David S. Tait, Verity J. Brown, Richard A. Depue, Tara L. White, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Jean-Michel Scherrmann, S. Stevens Negus, Dana E. Selley, Laura J. Sim-Selley, Christoph Hiemke, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Pierre Baumann, Kim Wolff, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Alan J. Budney, Robert L. Balster, Sharon Walsh, Andrea Bari, Johannes Mosbacher, Paul Willner, Wolfgang Fleischhacker, Etienne Sibille, Nicole Edgar, Sabine M. Hölter, John F. Cryan, Michel Le Moal, Marco Leyton, Sara Tomlinson, Glen Baker, Bernard Le Foll, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Tomasz Schneider, Yogita Chudasama, Stan Floresco, Marc Potenza, Fabrizio Benedetti, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Lucio Tremolizzo, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Malcolm Lader, Stefan Leucht, Mark Slifstein, Samuel G. Siris, Susan Jones, Peter Verheart, Per Svenningsson, Per Andrén, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Stephen C. Fowler, Harriet de Wit, Britta Hahn, Helen Cassaday, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael Minzenberg, David Baldwin, C. Neill Epperson, Lawrence Scahill, I. T. Uzbay, Lisiane Bizarro, Bart Ellenbroek, Patrick D. McGorry, Alison R. Yung, Mark A. Geyer, Angela Roberts, Celia Morgan, Valerie Curran, Jill B. Becker, Mary Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Theodora Duka, Sam Hutton, Martin Cammarota, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Iván Izquierdo, Husseini Manji, Jorge Quiroz, Per E. Andrén, Peter Verhaert, Joji Suzuki, Torsten Passie, Pedro E. Huertas, John Halpern, Gorkem Yararbas, Sakire Pogun, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Ian Hindmarch, Grasielle C. Kincheski, Leandro J. Bertoglio, Antonio Padua Carobrez, Wiepke Cahn, Heleen B. M. Boos, H. D. Postma, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Marie-Louise Wadenberg, Marc N. Branch, Jeffrey M. Witkin, James E. Barrett, Ivan Izquierdo, and Lia Rejane M. Bevilaqua
Published: 2010

40. Discriminative-Cue-Induced Reinstatement

Author: Nicola Simola, Micaela Morelli, Tooru Mizuno, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, H. Valerie Curran, Celia J. A. Morgan, Stephan G. Anagnostaras, Jennifer R Sage, Stephanie A Carmack, Lawrence H. Price, Grasielle C Kincheski, Leandro J Bertoglio, Antonio Padua Carobrez, Andrea Bari, Roshan Cools, Yogita Chudasama, Stefan Leucht, William Breitbart, Yesne Alici, Karl Mann, Falk Kiefer, Michael M Morgan, M J Christie, Istvan Bitter, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P Roiser, Darren R Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Kenneth J. Rhodes, Peter Paul De Deyn, Debby Van Dam, Darrel J. Pemberton, Johannes Mosbacher, Thomas Steckler, Alyson J Bond, Alex Hofer, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S Hurst, Irwin Lucki, Fadi T. Maalouf, David A. Brent, Fadi Maalouf, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, Andrew Young, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Linda P Spear, Mohammed Shoaib, Emma Childs, Britta Hahn, Peter Boeijinga, Martine Cador, David S Tait, Verity J. Brown, David Baldwin, Yavin Shaham, Sunila G Nair, Matthew I Palmatier, Rick A Bevins, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Mark Geyer, Anthony Absalom, David Menon, Joseph Zohar, Stephen C Fowler, James Winslow, Kim Wolff, Bankole A. Johnson, Martina de Zwaan, Angela Roberts, Anthony R Isles, Lawrence S. Wilkinson, Rosa M M de Almeida, Klaus A. Miczek, Eric Nestler, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Bankole A Johnson, Joseph H Friedman, István Bitter, Michael Minzenberg, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi Fineberg, MacDonald J. Christie, Joris C. Verster, Bernard Le Foll, Marilyn E Carroll, Peter A Santi, Ronald F Mucha, Ian P. Stolerman, Richard W Foltin, Christoph Hiemke, Luis Stinus, Stéphanie Caillé, John R Mantsch, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Brian E. Leonard, R. Andrew Chambers, Gail Winger, Mei-Chuan Ko, James H Woods, Seiya Miyamoto, Thomas R. E. Barnes, Kieran O’Malley, and David J. Hellerstein
Published: 2010

41. Phase II Clinical Trial

Author: R. Hamish McAllister-Williams, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S. Hurst, Linda P. Spear, Tim C. Kirkham, Thomas Steckler, Delphine Capdevielle, Jean-Philippe Boulenger, Cyril Höschl, Martine Cador, Ben J. Harrison, Christos Pantelis, Anthony Riley, Steve Kohut, Alex Hofer, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, D. Warren Spence, Shelby Freedman Harris, Michael J. Thorpy, Milton Kramer, Ian Stolerman, Holden D. Brown, Michael Ragozzino, Klaus A. Miczek, Anne Jackson, Sven Ove Ögren, Oliver Stiedl, Paul R. Pentel, Mark LeSage, Victoria L. Harvey, Tony Dickenson, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Gail Winger, Mei-Chuan Ko, James H. Woods, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Stephan G. Anagnostaras, Jennifer R. Sage, Stephanie A. Carmack, Jos Prickaerts, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhushi, Christoph U. Correll, Mohammed Shoaib, Trevor Robbins, Daniel Hoyer, Luzio Tremolizzo, Gessica Sala, Carlo Ferrarese, Seiya Miyamoto, David S. Tait, Verity J. Brown, Richard A. Depue, Tara L. White, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Jean-Michel Scherrmann, S. Stevens Negus, Dana E. Selley, Laura J. Sim-Selley, Christoph Hiemke, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Pierre Baumann, Kim Wolff, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Alan J. Budney, Robert L. Balster, Sharon Walsh, Andrea Bari, Johannes Mosbacher, Paul Willner, Wolfgang Fleischhacker, Etienne Sibille, Nicole Edgar, Sabine M. Hölter, John F. Cryan, Michel Le Moal, Marco Leyton, Sara Tomlinson, Glen Baker, Bernard Le Foll, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Tomasz Schneider, Yogita Chudasama, Stan Floresco, Marc Potenza, Fabrizio Benedetti, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Lucio Tremolizzo, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Malcolm Lader, Stefan Leucht, Mark Slifstein, Samuel G. Siris, Susan Jones, Peter Verheart, Per Svenningsson, Per Andrén, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Stephen C. Fowler, Harriet de Wit, Britta Hahn, Helen Cassaday, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael Minzenberg, David Baldwin, C. Neill Epperson, Lawrence Scahill, I. T. Uzbay, Lisiane Bizarro, Bart Ellenbroek, Patrick D. McGorry, Alison R. Yung, Mark A. Geyer, Angela Roberts, Celia Morgan, Valerie Curran, Jill B. Becker, Mary Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Theodora Duka, Sam Hutton, Martin Cammarota, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Iván Izquierdo, Husseini Manji, Jorge Quiroz, Per E. Andrén, Peter Verhaert, Joji Suzuki, Torsten Passie, Pedro E. Huertas, John Halpern, Gorkem Yararbas, Sakire Pogun, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Ian Hindmarch, Grasielle C. Kincheski, Leandro J. Bertoglio, Antonio Padua Carobrez, Wiepke Cahn, Heleen B. M. Boos, H. D. Postma, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Marie-Louise Wadenberg, Marc N. Branch, Jeffrey M. Witkin, James E. Barrett, Ivan Izquierdo, and Lia Rejane M. Bevilaqua
Published: 2010

42. Serotonin Transporter

Author: Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Luis De Lecea, Jason C. G. Halford, Josee E. Leysen, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhusi, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Richard W. Foltin, David C. S. Roberts, Andreas Marneros, Alex Hofer, Bart Ellenbroek, Christoph U. Correll, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Joris C. Verster, Emma Childs, Gary Remington, Edoardo Spina, W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Sheldon Preskorn, Megan M. Dahmen, Jana Lincoln, Dan J. Stein, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Angela Roberts, Marilyn E. Carroll, Peter A. Santi, Stefan Leucht, Klaus A. Miczek, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P. Roiser, Celia J. A. Morgan, Valerie H. Curran, Mary E. Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Terry E. Robinson, Ian Hindmarch, Darrell D. Mousseau, Andrew Holt, Glen B. Baker, Sidney H. Kennedy, Sakina J. Rizvi, Thomas Steckler, Seiya Miyamoto, Sakire Pogun, Gorkem Yararbas, Jill B. Becker, Anders Ågmo, Vera Astreika, Robert Segraves, Rodrigo Andrade, Yogita Chudasama, Roshan Cools, Iván Izquierdo, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Bernard Le Foll, Trevor W. Robbins, Husseini K. Manji, Jorge A. Quiroz, Jos Prickaerts, Ennio Esposito, William Invernizzi, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Peter J. Flor, Inga D. Neumann, Malcolm Lader, Joseph Zohar, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, Milton Kramer, Michael J. Thorpy, Shelby Freedman Harris, D. Warren Spence, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Samuel B. Hutton, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, S. Kasper, Frank Sams-Dodd, Yavin Shaham, John R. Mantsch, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Paul D. Callaghan, Iain S. McGregor, Murray R. Thompson, Michel Billiard, Brian A. Fallon, Kelli J. Harding, Daniel Hoyer, Jacques Epelbaum, Cécile Viollet, Mischa de Rover, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Stan Floresco, Anne Jackson, Mitul A. Mehta, Johannes Mosbacher, Ronald L. Cowan, Robert Kessler, Peter H. Boeijinga, James Winslow, A. Claudio Cuello, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi A. Fineberg, Mark A. Geyer, Francis C. Colpaert, Andrew Young, Ronald F. Mucha, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Marc N. Branch, Ian P. Stolerman, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sunila G. Nair, Becky Kinkead, Charles B. Nemeroff, Lucy C. Guillory, R. H. De Rijk, E. R. de Kloet, Francisco Aboitiz, Ximena Carrasco, F. Xavier Castellanos, Maria Isabel Colado, A. Richard Green, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, Alyson J. Bond, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Caroline Cohen, Marc Turiault, Guy Griebel, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael J. Owens, Chase H. Bourke, Gustavo Turecki, Britta Hahn, Sarah Morgan, Angus Mackay, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Lawrence Scahill, Andrea Bari, Stephen B. Dunnett, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, R. Andrew Chambers, and David E. Nichols
Published: 2010

43. Ropinirole

Author: Stan Floresco, Robert Kessler, Ronald L. Cowan, Mark Slifstein, Andrea Cipriani, John Geddes, Tooru M. Mizuno, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, Milton Kramer, Michael J. Thorpy, Shelby Freedman Harris, D. Warren Spence, Harriet de Wit, Galen R. Wenger, David V. Sheehan, Kathy H. Sheehan, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Klaus A. Miczek, Christoph Hiemke, Luis Stinus, Stéphanie Caillé, Martine Cador, Susan Jones, Josee E. Leysen, Xavier Langlois, Lieve Heylen, Adriaan A. Lammertsma, Hilde Lavreysen, John Atack, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Iván Izquierdo, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Lukas Pezawas, Francis C. Colpaert, Mischa de Rover, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Sarah H. Heil, Stacey C. Sigmon, Stephen T. Higgins, Roy Wise, Paul B. S. Clarke, Mary E. Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Sunila G. Nair, Yavin Shaham, John R. Mantsch, Alan J. Budney, David S. Baldwin, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi A. Fineberg, Helen J. Cassaday, Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Stephen M. Stahl, Meghan M. Grady, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhusi, Thomas Steckler, Ennio Esposito, Roberto William Invernizzi, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Michael J. Kuhar, Tomek J. Banasikowski, Richard J. Beninger, Sara Tomlinson, Glen B. Baker, Stephen C. Fowler, Peter J. Flor, Inga D. Neumann, Joseph H. Friedman, Britta Hahn, Bernard Le Foll, Grasielle C. Kincheski, Leandro J. Bertoglio, Antonio Pádua Carobrez, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Marie-Louise G. Wadenberg, Marlene Dobkin de Rios, Charles S. Grob, Theodora Duka, Linda Lundström, Silvia Gatti McArthur, Will Spooren, Trevor W. Robbins, Jos Prickaerts, and Peter H. Boeijinga
Published: 2010

44. Caffeinism

Author: Daniel Hoyer, Eric P Zorrilla, Pietro Cottone, Sarah Parylak, Micaela Morelli, Nicola Simola, James D. Lane, Michael M Morgan, M J Christie, Cecilia J. Hillard, Alan J. Budney, Ryan G. Vandrey, Trevor Robbins, Paolo Nencini, Michele Stanislaw Milella, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Victoria L Harvey, Tony Dickenson, Seiya Miyamoto, Osborne Almeida, Nuno Sousa, S Yu, Anthony Absalom, David Menon, Pedro L. Delgado, Cyril Höschl, Tara L White, Richard Depue, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Peter J Flor, Inga Neumann, Craig A Erickson, David J Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Etienne Sibille, Nicole Edgar, Malcolm Lader, Theodora Duka, Emma Childs, Britta Hahn, Jaanus Harro, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Yesne Alici, William Breitbart, Eric Nestler, Anthony R Isles, Lawrence Wilkinson, Subhash Pandey, Samuel G. Siris, Paul Willner, Michel Billiard, Björn Lemmer, Jean-Michel Scherrmann, Lawrence H. Price, Tomek J Banasikowski, Richard J Beninger, John Harvey, Brian E. Leonard, Kim Wolff, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi Fineberg, Warren H Meck, Catalin V Buhushi, Lance Richard McMahon, Yogita Chudasama, Michael Kuhar, Joachim D. Uys, Peter W. Kalivas, Mohammed Shoaib, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S Hurst, Michael Bloch, James F Leckman, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Anne Jackson, Ben J Harrison, Christos Pantelis, Ian Hindmarch, Alyson J Bond, Jaime M Monti, Darren R Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Marcy J Bubar, Kathryn A Cunningham, Christine A Franco, Marc Potenza, Maria-Inés López-Ibor, Juan J López-Ibor, Joseph H Friedman, Alex Hofer, Tomek J. Banasikowski, Richard J. Beninger, Matthew I Palmatier, Rick A Bevins, Thomas Tzschentke, David Roberts, Stephan Anagnostaras, Jennifer R Sage, Stephanie A Carmack, Stephen J. Kohut, Anthony L. Riley, Ronald F. Mucha, Jos Prickaerts, Oliver Stiedl, Sven Ove Ögren, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D Stewart, Patrick M Sexton, Yavin Shaham, Sunila G Nair, Sarah H Heil, Stacey C Sigmon, Stephen T. Higgins, Sarah H. Heil, Stacey C. Sigmon, Marc N Branch, Mary Cain, Michael T Bardo, Robert L Balster, Sharon Walsh, Roel de Rijk, Ronald De Kloet, Chase H. Bourke, Michael J. Owens, Cécile Viollet, Jacques Epelbaum, Karl Mann, Falk Kiefer, Michael Owens, Chase Bourke, Hamish McAllister-Williams, Andreas Marneros, Rodrigo Andrade, Ivan Izquierdo, Lia Rejane M Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Christoph Hiemke, Maria Isabel Colado, and Richard Green
Published: 2010

45. Substance P

Author: Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Luis De Lecea, Jason C. G. Halford, Josee E. Leysen, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhusi, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Richard W. Foltin, David C. S. Roberts, Andreas Marneros, Alex Hofer, Bart Ellenbroek, Christoph U. Correll, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Joris C. Verster, Emma Childs, Gary Remington, Edoardo Spina, W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Sheldon Preskorn, Megan M. Dahmen, Jana Lincoln, Dan J. Stein, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Angela Roberts, Marilyn E. Carroll, Peter A. Santi, Stefan Leucht, Klaus A. Miczek, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P. Roiser, Celia J. A. Morgan, Valerie H. Curran, Mary E. Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Terry E. Robinson, Ian Hindmarch, Darrell D. Mousseau, Andrew Holt, Glen B. Baker, Sidney H. Kennedy, Sakina J. Rizvi, Thomas Steckler, Seiya Miyamoto, Sakire Pogun, Gorkem Yararbas, Jill B. Becker, Anders Ågmo, Vera Astreika, Robert Segraves, Rodrigo Andrade, Yogita Chudasama, Roshan Cools, Iván Izquierdo, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Bernard Le Foll, Trevor W. Robbins, Husseini K. Manji, Jorge A. Quiroz, Jos Prickaerts, Ennio Esposito, William Invernizzi, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Peter J. Flor, Inga D. Neumann, Malcolm Lader, Joseph Zohar, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, Milton Kramer, Michael J. Thorpy, Shelby Freedman Harris, D. Warren Spence, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Samuel B. Hutton, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, S. Kasper, Frank Sams-Dodd, Yavin Shaham, John R. Mantsch, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Paul D. Callaghan, Iain S. McGregor, Murray R. Thompson, Michel Billiard, Brian A. Fallon, Kelli J. Harding, Daniel Hoyer, Jacques Epelbaum, Cécile Viollet, Mischa de Rover, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Stan Floresco, Anne Jackson, Mitul A. Mehta, Johannes Mosbacher, Ronald L. Cowan, Robert Kessler, Peter H. Boeijinga, James Winslow, A. Claudio Cuello, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi A. Fineberg, Mark A. Geyer, Francis C. Colpaert, Andrew Young, Ronald F. Mucha, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Marc N. Branch, Ian P. Stolerman, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sunila G. Nair, Becky Kinkead, Charles B. Nemeroff, Lucy C. Guillory, R. H. De Rijk, E. R. de Kloet, Francisco Aboitiz, Ximena Carrasco, F. Xavier Castellanos, Maria Isabel Colado, A. Richard Green, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, Alyson J. Bond, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Caroline Cohen, Marc Turiault, Guy Griebel, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael J. Owens, Chase H. Bourke, Gustavo Turecki, Britta Hahn, Sarah Morgan, Angus Mackay, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Lawrence Scahill, Andrea Bari, Stephen B. Dunnett, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, R. Andrew Chambers, and David E. Nichols
Published: 2010

46. Social Impairment

Author: Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Luis De Lecea, Jason C. G. Halford, Josee E. Leysen, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhusi, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Richard W. Foltin, David C. S. Roberts, Andreas Marneros, Alex Hofer, Bart Ellenbroek, Christoph U. Correll, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Joris C. Verster, Emma Childs, Gary Remington, Edoardo Spina, W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Sheldon Preskorn, Megan M. Dahmen, Jana Lincoln, Dan J. Stein, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Angela Roberts, Marilyn E. Carroll, Peter A. Santi, Stefan Leucht, Klaus A. Miczek, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P. Roiser, Celia J. A. Morgan, Valerie H. Curran, Mary E. Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Terry E. Robinson, Ian Hindmarch, Darrell D. Mousseau, Andrew Holt, Glen B. Baker, Sidney H. Kennedy, Sakina J. Rizvi, Thomas Steckler, Seiya Miyamoto, Sakire Pogun, Gorkem Yararbas, Jill B. Becker, Anders Ågmo, Vera Astreika, Robert Segraves, Rodrigo Andrade, Yogita Chudasama, Roshan Cools, Iván Izquierdo, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Bernard Le Foll, Trevor W. Robbins, Husseini K. Manji, Jorge A. Quiroz, Jos Prickaerts, Ennio Esposito, William Invernizzi, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Peter J. Flor, Inga D. Neumann, Malcolm Lader, Joseph Zohar, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, Milton Kramer, Michael J. Thorpy, Shelby Freedman Harris, D. Warren Spence, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Samuel B. Hutton, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, S. Kasper, Frank Sams-Dodd, Yavin Shaham, John R. Mantsch, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Paul D. Callaghan, Iain S. McGregor, Murray R. Thompson, Michel Billiard, Brian A. Fallon, Kelli J. Harding, Daniel Hoyer, Jacques Epelbaum, Cécile Viollet, Mischa de Rover, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Stan Floresco, Anne Jackson, Mitul A. Mehta, Johannes Mosbacher, Ronald L. Cowan, Robert Kessler, Peter H. Boeijinga, James Winslow, A. Claudio Cuello, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi A. Fineberg, Mark A. Geyer, Francis C. Colpaert, Andrew Young, Ronald F. Mucha, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Marc N. Branch, Ian P. Stolerman, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sunila G. Nair, Becky Kinkead, Charles B. Nemeroff, Lucy C. Guillory, R. H. De Rijk, E. R. de Kloet, Francisco Aboitiz, Ximena Carrasco, F. Xavier Castellanos, Maria Isabel Colado, A. Richard Green, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, Alyson J. Bond, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Caroline Cohen, Marc Turiault, Guy Griebel, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael J. Owens, Chase H. Bourke, Gustavo Turecki, Britta Hahn, Sarah Morgan, Angus Mackay, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Lawrence Scahill, Andrea Bari, Stephen B. Dunnett, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, R. Andrew Chambers, and David E. Nichols
Published: 2010

47. Serazide

Author: Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Luis De Lecea, Jason C. G. Halford, Josee E. Leysen, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhusi, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Richard W. Foltin, David C. S. Roberts, Andreas Marneros, Alex Hofer, Bart Ellenbroek, Christoph U. Correll, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Joris C. Verster, Emma Childs, Gary Remington, Edoardo Spina, W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Sheldon Preskorn, Megan M. Dahmen, Jana Lincoln, Dan J. Stein, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Angela Roberts, Marilyn E. Carroll, Peter A. Santi, Stefan Leucht, Klaus A. Miczek, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P. Roiser, Celia J. A. Morgan, Valerie H. Curran, Mary E. Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Terry E. Robinson, Ian Hindmarch, Darrell D. Mousseau, Andrew Holt, Glen B. Baker, Sidney H. Kennedy, Sakina J. Rizvi, Thomas Steckler, Seiya Miyamoto, Sakire Pogun, Gorkem Yararbas, Jill B. Becker, Anders Ågmo, Vera Astreika, Robert Segraves, Rodrigo Andrade, Yogita Chudasama, Roshan Cools, Iván Izquierdo, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Bernard Le Foll, Trevor W. Robbins, Husseini K. Manji, Jorge A. Quiroz, Jos Prickaerts, Ennio Esposito, William Invernizzi, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Peter J. Flor, Inga D. Neumann, Malcolm Lader, Joseph Zohar, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, Milton Kramer, Michael J. Thorpy, Shelby Freedman Harris, D. Warren Spence, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Samuel B. Hutton, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, S. Kasper, Frank Sams-Dodd, Yavin Shaham, John R. Mantsch, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Paul D. Callaghan, Iain S. McGregor, Murray R. Thompson, Michel Billiard, Brian A. Fallon, Kelli J. Harding, Daniel Hoyer, Jacques Epelbaum, Cécile Viollet, Mischa de Rover, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Stan Floresco, Anne Jackson, Mitul A. Mehta, Johannes Mosbacher, Ronald L. Cowan, Robert Kessler, Peter H. Boeijinga, James Winslow, A. Claudio Cuello, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi A. Fineberg, Mark A. Geyer, Francis C. Colpaert, Andrew Young, Ronald F. Mucha, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Marc N. Branch, Ian P. Stolerman, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sunila G. Nair, Becky Kinkead, Charles B. Nemeroff, Lucy C. Guillory, R. H. De Rijk, E. R. de Kloet, Francisco Aboitiz, Ximena Carrasco, F. Xavier Castellanos, Maria Isabel Colado, A. Richard Green, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, Alyson J. Bond, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Caroline Cohen, Marc Turiault, Guy Griebel, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael J. Owens, Chase H. Bourke, Gustavo Turecki, Britta Hahn, Sarah Morgan, Angus Mackay, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Lawrence Scahill, Andrea Bari, Stephen B. Dunnett, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, R. Andrew Chambers, and David E. Nichols
Published: 2010

48. Drug Occasion Setter

Author: Nicola Simola, Micaela Morelli, Tooru Mizuno, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, H. Valerie Curran, Celia J. A. Morgan, Stephan G. Anagnostaras, Jennifer R Sage, Stephanie A Carmack, Lawrence H. Price, Grasielle C Kincheski, Leandro J Bertoglio, Antonio Padua Carobrez, Andrea Bari, Roshan Cools, Yogita Chudasama, Stefan Leucht, William Breitbart, Yesne Alici, Karl Mann, Falk Kiefer, Michael M Morgan, M J Christie, Istvan Bitter, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P Roiser, Darren R Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Kenneth J. Rhodes, Peter Paul De Deyn, Debby Van Dam, Darrel J. Pemberton, Johannes Mosbacher, Thomas Steckler, Alyson J Bond, Alex Hofer, Daniel Bertrand, Hans Rollema, Raymond S Hurst, Irwin Lucki, Fadi T. Maalouf, David A. Brent, Fadi Maalouf, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, Andrew Young, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Linda P Spear, Mohammed Shoaib, Emma Childs, Britta Hahn, Peter Boeijinga, Martine Cador, David S Tait, Verity J. Brown, David Baldwin, Yavin Shaham, Sunila G Nair, Matthew I Palmatier, Rick A Bevins, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Mark Geyer, Anthony Absalom, David Menon, Joseph Zohar, Stephen C Fowler, James Winslow, Kim Wolff, Bankole A. Johnson, Martina de Zwaan, Angela Roberts, Anthony R Isles, Lawrence S. Wilkinson, Rosa M M de Almeida, Klaus A. Miczek, Eric Nestler, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Bankole A Johnson, Joseph H Friedman, István Bitter, Michael Minzenberg, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi Fineberg, MacDonald J. Christie, Joris C. Verster, Bernard Le Foll, Marilyn E Carroll, Peter A Santi, Ronald F Mucha, Ian P. Stolerman, Richard W Foltin, Christoph Hiemke, Luis Stinus, Stéphanie Caillé, John R Mantsch, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Brian E. Leonard, R. Andrew Chambers, Gail Winger, Mei-Chuan Ko, James H Woods, Seiya Miyamoto, Thomas R. E. Barnes, Kieran O’Malley, and David J. Hellerstein
Published: 2010

49. Sildenafil

Author: Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Luis De Lecea, Jason C. G. Halford, Josee E. Leysen, Warren H. Meck, Catalin V. Buhusi, Marcy J. Bubar, Kathryn A. Cunningham, Richard W. Foltin, David C. S. Roberts, Andreas Marneros, Alex Hofer, Bart Ellenbroek, Christoph U. Correll, Paul Newhouse, Heather Wilkins, Joris C. Verster, Emma Childs, Gary Remington, Edoardo Spina, W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker, John Atack, Hilde Lavreysen, Sheldon Preskorn, Megan M. Dahmen, Jana Lincoln, Dan J. Stein, Anthony L. Riley, Steve Kohut, Angela Roberts, Marilyn E. Carroll, Peter A. Santi, Stefan Leucht, Klaus A. Miczek, Eileen M. Joyce, Jonathan P. Roiser, Celia J. A. Morgan, Valerie H. Curran, Mary E. Cain, Michael T. Bardo, Terry E. Robinson, Ian Hindmarch, Darrell D. Mousseau, Andrew Holt, Glen B. Baker, Sidney H. Kennedy, Sakina J. Rizvi, Thomas Steckler, Seiya Miyamoto, Sakire Pogun, Gorkem Yararbas, Jill B. Becker, Anders Ågmo, Vera Astreika, Robert Segraves, Rodrigo Andrade, Yogita Chudasama, Roshan Cools, Iván Izquierdo, Lia R. Bevilaqua, Martin Cammarota, Bernard Le Foll, Trevor W. Robbins, Husseini K. Manji, Jorge A. Quiroz, Jos Prickaerts, Ennio Esposito, William Invernizzi, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Peter J. Flor, Inga D. Neumann, Malcolm Lader, Joseph Zohar, Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal, Milton Kramer, Michael J. Thorpy, Shelby Freedman Harris, D. Warren Spence, Gabriele Fischer, Annemarie Unger, Samuel B. Hutton, Huaiyu Yang, George I. Papakostas, S. Kasper, Frank Sams-Dodd, Yavin Shaham, John R. Mantsch, Craig A. Erickson, David J. Posey, Kelly Blankenship, Kimberly A. Stigler, Christopher J. McDougle, Paul D. Callaghan, Iain S. McGregor, Murray R. Thompson, Michel Billiard, Brian A. Fallon, Kelli J. Harding, Daniel Hoyer, Jacques Epelbaum, Cécile Viollet, Mischa de Rover, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Stan Floresco, Anne Jackson, Mitul A. Mehta, Johannes Mosbacher, Ronald L. Cowan, Robert Kessler, Peter H. Boeijinga, James Winslow, A. Claudio Cuello, Arthur Christopoulos, Gregory D. Stewart, Patrick M. Sexton, Ashwini Padhi, Naomi A. Fineberg, Mark A. Geyer, Francis C. Colpaert, Andrew Young, Ronald F. Mucha, Christof Baltes, Thomas Mueggler, Markus Rudin, Giovanni Hernandez, Peter Shizgal, Marc N. Branch, Ian P. Stolerman, Sharon Morein-Zamir, Barbara J. Sahakian, Sunila G. Nair, Becky Kinkead, Charles B. Nemeroff, Lucy C. Guillory, R. H. De Rijk, E. R. de Kloet, Francisco Aboitiz, Ximena Carrasco, F. Xavier Castellanos, Maria Isabel Colado, A. Richard Green, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, Alyson J. Bond, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Caroline Cohen, Marc Turiault, Guy Griebel, Darren R. Christensen, Warren K. Bickel, Michael J. Owens, Chase H. Bourke, Gustavo Turecki, Britta Hahn, Sarah Morgan, Angus Mackay, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Lawrence Scahill, Andrea Bari, Stephen B. Dunnett, Karim Nader, Oliver Hardt, Paola V. Migues, R. Andrew Chambers, and David E. Nichols
Published: 2010

50. G protein-Coupled Receptors

Author: Husseini K. Manji, Jorge Quiroz, R. Andrew Chambers, Anthony Absalom, David Menon, Patrizia Porcu, A. Leslie Morrow, Wolfgang Fleischhacker, Naheed (Max) Mirza, Christine A. Franco, Marc N. Potenza, Robert Kessler, Ronald L. Cowan, Daniel Hoyer, Eric J. Nestler, Elizabath C. Warburton, David S. Baldwin, Sophie Tambour, John C. Crabbe, Nicole Edgar, Etienne Sibille, Linda Lundstroem, Silvia Gatti McArthur, Will Spooren, R. H. de Rijk, E. R. De Kloet, Michael J. Owens, Chase H. Bourke, Joachim D. Uys, Peter W. Kalivas, Anne M. Andrews, Greg A. Gerhardt, Lynette Daws, Barbara J. Mason, Charles J. Heyser, Seiya Miyamoto, Peter Riederer, Siegfried Hoyer, Suzanne H. Mitchell, Harriet de Wit, Matthew I. Palmatier, Rick A. Bevins, Jill B. Becker, C. Neill Epperson, Gorkem Yararbas, Sakire Pogun, Michael M. Morgan, MacDonald J. Christie, Ben J. Harrison, Christos Pantelis, and Andrew Young
Published: 2010

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