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Dry detention reservoirs are frequently used as a measure to alleviate flood risk. When implemented on agricultural land, they decrease the productive capacity of a rural landscape and negatively impact soil characteristics, crop quality and quantity, agricultural infrastructure (i.e., irrigation equipment), and agro-economics. The Slovenian government prepared a Detailed Plan of National Importance to ensure flood safety in the Lower Savinja Valley. The proposed plan foresees the implementation of a chain of 10 dry reservoirs (520 ha of agricultural land) to provide a higher level of flood protection for the cities of Celje and Lasko. We explored how economic calculation can adequately address flood risk management initiatives and prevent adverse effects on high-quality agricultural land. The results of agro-economic scenarios for the study area showed that expected damage to agriculture production (crop yield) in a worst-case flood event occurring during the growing period would be EUR 1.7 million. The most exposed farms would suffer damage in the range of three to five average annual salaries. These agro-economic findings indicate the need for discussion on agriculture-focused mitigation measures before the construction of flood protection measures.

Solutions to current complex environmental challenges demand the consultation and involvement of various groups in society. In light of the WFD’s requirements of public participation, this paper presents an analysis of the establishment and development of nine different multi-actor platforms (MAPs) across Europe set up as arenas for long-term engagements to solve water quality challenges in relation to agriculture. The MAPs represent different histories and legacies of engagement, some are recent initiatives and some are affiliated with previous government-initiated projects, while other MAPs are long-term engagement platforms. A case study approach drawing on insights from the nine engagement processes is used to discuss conditions for enabling long-term multi-actor engagement. The perceived pressure for change and preferred prioritization in complying with mitigating water quality problems vary within and among the MAPs. The results show that governmental and local actors’ concern for water quality improvements and focusing on pressure for change are important for establishing meaningful multi-actor engagement when concerns translate into a clear mandate of the MAP. Furthermore, the degree to which the MAPs have been able to establish relationships and networks with other institutions such as water companies, agricultural and environmental authorities, farmers, and civil society organizations influences possibilities for long-term meaningful engagement.

Erosion processes in the watershed and sediment transport cause hydro-morphological changes, eutrophication, and the loss of storage capacity in reservoirs. This study examines the tool for the optimal selection and implementation (TSI) of eco-remediation measures (ERM) in the river basin area to improve water quality and to reduce storage loss in the reservoir in question. The main purpose of this tool is to support decisions and measures taken to correct defined problems and to improve water quality and storage capacity in the watershed while minimising sediment transport. This tool enables the effective and necessary implementation of these measures to the most critical source areas (CSAs). In order to verify its operability, we selected the Ledava reservoir with a transboundary area of 105.25 km2 in NE Slovenia and SE Austria. With the use of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), critical source areas were determined and the effects of eight different scenarios on sediment yield and load transport were simulated. The results showed that CSAs occupy 12% of the watershed and that sediment inflow into the Ledavsko jezero reservoir could be reduced by up to 30%. After determining the CSAs and which measures would be most effective, the implementation plan could be defined. Within this framework, the TSI enabled the selection of effective measures and contributed to the long-term improvement of the ecological status of surface waters required by Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), improving the quality of water bodies of all types to safeguard water ecosystems from harmful consequences.

Groundwater is the main source of drinking water in Slovenia, but nitrate pollution originating from agricultural activities as well as urban sources such as faulty sewage systems is threatening its quality in several areas of the country. One of such is the Krško-brežiško polje alluvial plain in the southeast. The main aim of this study was to assess the water and nitrogen balance for three common land-use types, as well as the whole area. Three field trial sites were set up to monitor water and nitrogen balance. Gaps in data were further evaluated by SWAT model simulations. Results will contribute to the existing knowledge of nitrate pollution pathways in the area, and strengthen understanding of land use and soil type’s influence on the process.This work was funded by the Slovenian Research Agency project L4-8221 and IAEA TCP-SLO5004.

Environmental tracers, present in the environment and provided by nature, provide integrative information about both water flow and transport. For studying water flow and solute transport, the hydrogen and oxygen isotopes are of special interest, as their ratios provide a tracer signal with every precipitation event and are seasonally distributed. In order to follow the seasonal distribution of stable isotopes in the soil water and use this information for identifying hydrological processes and hydraulic properties, soil was sampled three times in three profiles, two on Krško polje aquifer in SE Slovenia and one on Ljubljansko polje in central Slovenia. Isotope composition of soil water was measured with the water-vapor-equilibration method. Based on the isotope composition of soil water integrative information about water flow and transport processes with time and depth below ground were assessed. Porewater isotopes were in similar range as precipitation for all three profiles. Variable isotope ratios in the upper 60 cm for the different sampling times indicated dynamic water fluxes in this upper part of the vadose zone. Results also showed more evaporation at one sampling location, Brege. The information from stable isotopes will be of importance for further analyzing the water fluxes in the vadose zone of the study sties. This research was financed by the ARRS BIAT 20-21-32 and IAEA CRP 1.50.18 Multiple isotope fingerprints to identify sources and transport of agro-contaminants.

For decades agricultural research was done in the field or laboratories, but with the rise of computer science, hydrologic modeling became another essential tool for environmental impact studies. Many types of models can be used, each with its strengths and weaknesses in terms of accuracy, speed, and amount of input data needed. Models can be used on different scales and simulate very different processes. Based on a literature review, APEX (Agricultural Policy Extender) and SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) models are the most popular for environmental research in agronomy. An important share of modeling work in agronomic studies is focused on pollution research, mainly nutrient and pesticide leaching and soil erosion processes. Other topics include simulating the effects of irrigation and other agricultural practices and studying the impact of extreme weather events and climate change. When working with model results, it is crucial to be mindful of inevitable uncertainties and consider them during interpretation. Modeling is gaining importance in agronomic research in Slovenia, with many studies done in the recent decade and more underway.

Advising farmers on the best agricultural management practices (AMP) to be adopted in order to sustain agricultural productivity while improving soil quality is mandatory to assure future food production. Some promising AMPs have been suggested over the time to prevent soil degradation. These practices have been randomly adopted by farmers but which ones are mostly used by farmers and where they have been applied remains unclear. As part of the iSQAPER project—Interactive Soil Quality Assessment in Europe and China for Agricultural Productivity and Environmental Resilience—we (1) mapped the current distribution of previously selected 18 promising AMPs in several pedoclimatic regions and farming systems along Europe and China, based on ten and four study site areas (SSA), respectively; and (2) identified the soil threats occurring in those areas. In each SSA, farmers using promising AMPs were identified and questionnaires were used to assess farmer’s perception on soil threats in their fields. For this study, 138 plots/farms were identified in Europe (112) and China (26). Results show that most widely used promising AMPs in Europe are crop rotation (15%), manuring and composting (15%), and min-till (14%), whereas in China are manuring and composting (18%), residue maintenance (18%), and integrated pest and disease management (12%). In Europe, soil erosion is the main threat in agricultural Mediterranean areas, while soil-borne pests and diseases are more frequent in the SSAs from France and the Netherlands. In China, soil erosion, SOM decline, compaction, and poor soil structure are among the main farmers’ concerns. This research provides relevant information for policy-makers and the development of strategies to support and promote agricultural management practices with benefits for soil quality.

Achieving climate change (CC) resilience in a timely and efficient fashion is becoming a major priority across multiple sectors. Agricultural CC adaptation has become an integrated part of agricultural development policy throughout the EU and further. Without the timely implementation of appropriate measures, the vulnerability of highly exposed and sensitive agricultural landscapes with low adaptive capacity will increase. This paper focuses on the Vipava Valley, a sub-Mediterranean agricultural area highly vulnerable to CC, describing the stakeholder landscape approach undertaken to define stakeholder responsibility level in terms of implementing adaptation measures; and it identifies the key challenges facing stakeholder networks at individual measure levels. The strategy for agricultural CC adaptation follows the structure proposed by the European Commission and clearly defines the necessary stakeholder landscape for implementing agricultural CC adaptation measures and indicators for adaptation strategy monitoring and evaluation. The challenges identified in relation to stakeholder interaction cannot be solved by strategy alone; a facilitated approach to policy implementation is necessary, its success being dependent on the ability of the social landscape to develop a firm implementation of a monitoring programme for adaptation to CC at the local municipality level.

Pollution of ground-and surface waters with nitrates from agricultural sources poses a risk to drinking water quality and has negative impacts on the environment. At the national scale, the gross nitrogen budget (GNB) is accepted as an indicator of pollution caused by nitrates. There is, however, little common EU-wide knowledge on the budget application and its comparability at the farm level for the detection of ground-and surface water pollution caused by nitrates and the monitoring of mitigation measures. Therefore, a survey was carried out among experts of various European countries in order to assess the practice and application of fertilization planning and nitrogen budgeting at the farm level and the differences between countries within Europe. While fertilization planning is practiced in all of the fourteen countries analyzed in this paper, according to current legislation, nitrogen budgets have to be calculated only in Switzerland, Germany and Romania. The survey revealed that methods of fertilization planning and nitrogen budgeting at the farm level are not unified throughout Europe. In most of the cases where budgets are used regularly (Germany, Romania, Switzerland), standard values for the chemical composition of feed, organic fertilizers, animal and plant products are used. The example of the Dutch Annual Nutrient Cycling Assessment (ANCA) tool (and partly of the Suisse Balance) shows that it is only by using farm-specific &ldquo, real&rdquo, data that budgeting can be successfully applied to optimize nutrient flows and increase N efficiencies at the farm level. However, this approach is more elaborate and requires centralized data processing under consideration of data protection concerns. This paper concludes that there is no unified indicator for nutrient management and water quality at the farm level. A comparison of regionally calculated nitrogen budgets across European countries needs to be interpreted carefully, as methods as well as data and emission factors vary across countries. For the implementation of EU nitrogen-related policies&mdash, notably, the Nitrates Directive&mdash, nutrient budgeting is currently ruled out as an entry point for legal requirements. In contrast, nutrient budgets are highlighted as an environment indicator by the OECD and EU institutions.

Groundwater is the main source of drinking water in Slovenia, but nitrate pollution originating from agriculture and urban areas is threatening its quality in several areas of the country. The aim of this study is to assess the vulnerability of three different unconfined aquifers in Slovenia (Ljubljansko polje, Dravsko-ptujsko polje and Krško-brežiško polje). All three study areas are located on alluvial plains with shallow groundwater levels and similar soil types, but different ratios of urban and agricultural land use. Soil types and land use were analyzed in each area as they contribute strongly to leaching of nitrate. Along with this we performed the analysis of stable isotopes of O, H and N to determine the origin of groundwater recharge and trace the possible sources of nitrate pollution. Results will give us an overview of nitrate pollution pathways through better understanding of nitrate sources, vulnerable areas, and groundwater recharge characteristics.

Groundwater pollution with nitrate of agricultural origin is a major problem in many countries. A great deal of effort is focused on finding ways to reduce leaching from agricultural land. In this study, different land management scenarios were evaluated with the SWAT model in order to determine which are the most effective in reducing nitrate leaching on specific soil types in the Kr&scaron, ka kotlina alluvial plain (Slovenia). The area is very important both for agriculture production and drinking water resources. The model was calibrated for three soil moisture field trial sites, each representing one major soil type of the area. Simulated soil moisture values were in good agreement with the observed values (PBIAS (percent bias) &plusmn, 25%). Of the nine land management scenarios that were evaluated, vegetable rotation caused the most nitrate leaching on all soil types, but it fared better on Cambisol than on Fluvisol. Orchards on the other hand leached the least amount of nitrate, but also fared better on Cambisol. Presented studies should be considered as a preliminary stage in the study of nitrate pollution in the investigated area. Results show that nitrate leaching varies for different land management scenarios on different soil types. Further work should concentrate on field trials to evaluate the impacts of reduced fertilization on nitrate leaching and both crop yield and quality on different soil types.

Nitrate leaching into groundwater is a serious issue in many parts of the world. Usually agricultural use of fertilizers is blamed to be the main source of pollution, but other human activities, like leaky or inexistent sewage systems can also be important in this regard. The aim of this study is to assess nitrate transport from soil to ground and surface waters with nuclear techniques. Two study sites were chosen—both featuring agricultural production in vulnerable areas of alluvial plains. Shallow groundwater below the surface is the main source of drinking water in both areas. Stable isotope techniques provide an innovative and unique methodology to trace and monitor the movement of nitrates (organic and inorganic) from the soil to ground and surface waters and to determine possible sources.

Urban gardening is not a new phenomenon but it has received considerably more practical and academic interest in recent years. Studies on economic aspects such as crop yields, inputs and outputs of production, productivity, gross margins and the contribution to home economics are rare, especially in Europe. While urban gardening plays an important role in the Global South, its role in Western Europe for food productivity and home economics is currently under-researched. The aim of this study is to analyse European urban gardeners’ economic performance and self-sufficiency on a household level, as well as to reach a better understanding of their contribution to food self-provision and food security in the metropolitan areas. In a study carried out in 2014 with on-site personal and with online questionnaires participated 180 urban gardeners from three case study cities (Ljubljana, Milan, and London). Results from the economic analysis showed that although for most urban gardeners, profit is not their main motivation, the economic calculation shows that productivity in small urban plots can be comparable to market garden production. Urban gardeners are saving money, especially when, compared to retail prices for regular produce or organic produce, their input is included in the gross margin calculation. We conclude that, in the case-study cities, the self-provisional potential of urban gardeners’ households to adequately cover the annual vegetable need of five-a-day servings can be met under three conditions: (1) sufficient garden size; (2) increased area productivity, and (3) sufficient labour-hour inputs.

In this paper we present effects of four paired agricultural management practices (organic matter (OM) addition versus no organic matter input, no-tillage (NT) versus conventional tillage, crop rotation versus monoculture, and organic agriculture versus conventional agriculture) on five key soil quality indicators, i.e., soil organic matter (SOM) content, pH, aggregate stability, earthworms (numbers) and crop yield. We have considered organic matter addition, no-tillage, crop rotation and organic agriculture as “promising practices”; no organic matter input, conventional tillage, monoculture and conventional farming were taken as the respective references or “standard practice” (baseline). Relative effects were analysed through indicator response ratio (RR) under each paired practice. For this we considered data of 30 long-term experiments collected from 13 case study sites in Europe and China as collated in the framework of the EU-China funded iSQAPER project. These were complemented with data from 42 long-term experiments across China and 402 observations of long-term trials published in the literature. Out of these, we only considered experiments covering at least five years. The results show that OM addition favourably affected all the indicators under consideration. The most favourable effect was reported on earthworm numbers, followed by yield, SOM content and soil aggregate stability. For pH, effects depended on soil type; OM input favourably affected the pH of acidic soils, whereas no clear trend was observed under NT. NT generally led to increased aggregate stability and greater SOM content in upper soil horizons. However, the magnitude of the relative effects varied, e.g. with soil texture. No-tillage practices enhanced earthworm populations, but not where herbicides or pesticides were applied to combat weeds and pests. Overall, in this review, yield slightly decreased under NT. Crop rotation had a positive effect on SOM content and yield; rotation with ley very positively influenced earthworms’ numbers. Overall, crop rotation had little impact on soil pH and aggregate stability − depending on the type of intercrop; alternatively, rotation of arable crops only resulted in adverse effects. A clear positive trend was observed for earthworm abundance under organic agriculture. Further, organic agriculture generally resulted in increased aggregate stability and greater SOM content. Overall, no clear trend was found for pH; a decrease in yield was observed under organic agriculture in this review.

The intensive use of soil and water resources results in a disbalance between the environmental and economic objectives of the river basin. The water quality management model supports good water status, especially downstream of dams and reservoirs, as in the case of the Sutla/Sotla river basin. This research aims to develop a new, improved integrated water quality management model of rural transboundary basins to achieve environmental objectives and protection of the Natura 2000 sites. The model uses river basin pressure analysis to assess the effects of climate and hydrological extreme impacts, and a programme of basic and supplementary measures. The impact assessment of BASE MODEL, PAST, and FUTURE scenarios was modelled using the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) based on land use, climate and hydrological data, climate change, presence or lack of a reservoir, and municipal wastewater and agriculture measures. Eight future climate change scenarios were obtained with optimistic (RCP4.5) and pessimistic (RCP8.5) forecasts for two periods (2020–2050 and 2070–2100), both with and without a reservoir. The model shows that the most significant impacts on the waterbody come from the nutrients and sediment hotspots, also shows the risk of not achieving good water status, and water eutrophication risk. The modelled average annual increase in sediment is from 4 to 25% and in total N from 1 to 8%, while the change in total P is from 􀀀5 to 6%. The conducted analysis provides a base for the selection of tailor-made measures from the catalogue of the supplementary measures that will be outlined in future research.

A study was carried out to assess if the visual soil assessment method (VSA) would allow recognizing differences between soils receiving organic matter (OM) amendments and similar control soils, by the observation of visual soil quality indicators’ score. 36 practices were identified across 8 pedoclimatic zones. These fields/plots were paired with nearby control fields/plots, without OM amendments, sharing similar farming features. A survey, comprising a VSA of the soil structure status, surface ponding, signs of erosion, earthworm counts and soil stability (slake test), complemented by measurements of soil organic matter (SOM) and permanganate oxidizable organic carbon (LOC) content, soil pH, penetration resistance and texture, on soils of both management system groups (OM addition and Control), was performed in 2016. Correlations of the visual soil quality indicators’ score with SOM, LOC, other soil properties and climate variables and indices were calculated within each group; the correlations between soil properties, and between soil properties (SOM and LOC) and climate variables were also calculated. A statistically significantly higher proportion of soils of the OM group had a good score for “soil structure and consistency” and “soil porosity”. These differences are not directly explained by non-inherent soil properties. No statistically significant Spearman’s correlation coefficients were observed between “soil structure and consistency” and either soil properties or climate variables; concerning “soil porosity”, distinct statistically significant correlations were observed between the two groups with different climate variables and indices. Correlations between the scores of the visual soil quality indicators and climate variables were found to follow the same directions of correlations of LOC content with the same climate variables, although the latter correlations were weak. Mean SOM and LOC content, were slightly higher in the OM group, although differences were not statistically significant. A high linear correlation between LOC (mg/g) and SOM (%) (r = 0.65, n = 26) exists within the Control group, but not within the OM group (r = 0.20 and n = 26). When the relationship of SOM and LOC content with visual soil quality indicators’ score was studied, statistically significant correlations were only observed between SOM and “earthworm count” within the Control group (rs = 0.44), and between LOC and “soil colour” within the OM group (rs=-0.52). Both LOC content and LOC status (ranked as a function of LOC content and soil texture), had only negative statistically significant correlations with visual soil quality indicators’ score, questioning their worth as stand-alone soil quality indicators.

Throughout the European Union (EU), high concentrations of nitrates and pesticides are among the major polluting components of drinking water and have potential long-term impacts on the environment and human health. Many research projects co-funded by the European Commission have been carried out, but the results often do not influence policy making and implementation to the extent that is duly justified. This paper assesses several issues and barriers that weaken the role of science in EU policy making and EU policy implementation in the case of agricultural impacts on drinking water quality. It then proposes improvements and solutions to strengthen the role of science in this process. The analysis is conceptual but supported empirically by a desk study, a workshop, and complementary individual interviews, mostly with representatives of organizations working at the EU level. The results indicate that perceived barriers are mostly observed on the national or regional level and are connected with a lack of political will, scarce instruction on the legislation implementation process, and a lack of funding opportunities for science to be included in policy making and further EU policy implementation. In response to that, we suggest translating scientific knowledge on technological, practical or environmental changes and using dissemination techniques for specific audiences and in local languages. Further, the relationship between data, information and decision making needs to change by implementing monitoring in real-time, which will allow for the quick adaptation of strategies. In addition, we suggest project clustering (science, policy, stakeholders, and citizens) to make science and research more connected to current policy challenges and stakeholder needs along with citizen involvement with an aim of establishing sustainable long-term relationships and communication flows.

iSQAPER project - Interactive Soil Quality Assessment in Europe and China for Agricultural Productivity and Environmental Resilience - aims to develop an app to advise farmers on selecting the best AgricultureManagement Practice (AMPs) to improve soil quality. For this purpose, a soil quality index has to be developed to account for the changes in soil quality as impacted by the implementation of the AMPs. Some promising AMPs have been suggested over the time to prevent soil degradation. These practices have been randomly adopted by farmers but which practices are most used by farmers and where they are mostly adopted remains unclear. This study is part of the iSQAPER project with the specific aims: 1) map the current distribution of previously selected 18 promising AMPs in several pedo-climatic regions and farming systems located in ten and four study site areas (SSA) along Europe and China, respectively; and 2) identify the soil threats occurring in those areas. In each SSA, farmers using promising AMP'swere identified and questionnaires were used to assess farmer's perception on soil threats significance in the area. 138 plots/farms using 18 promising AMPs, were identified in Europe (112) and China (26).Results show that promising AMPs used in Europe are Crop rotation (15%), Manuring & Composting (15%) and Min-till (14%), whereas in China areManuring & Composting (18%), Residuemaintenance (18%) and Integrated pest and disease management (12%). In Europe, soil erosion is the main threat in agricultural Mediterranean areas while soilborne pests and diseases is more frequent in the SSAs from France and The Netherlands. In China, soil erosion, SOM decline, compaction and poor soil structure are among the most significant. This work provides important information for policy makers and the development of strategies to support and promote agricultural management practices with benefits for soil quality. L. Barão and C. Ferreira were supported by the grants SFRH/BPD/115681/2016 and SFRH/BPD/120093/2016, respectively, from the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia iSQAPER is funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 Programme for research & innovation under grant agreement no 635750 the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology (grant nr:2016YFE011270) the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant nr:16146KYSB20150001) and the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation. Contract: 15.0170-1.

The study aims to address the long-term impacts of six different downscaled Regional Climate Models (RCM) climate models on the quantity (river flow) and quality (sediment load, total nitrogen load and total phosphorus load) state of surface waters in the river Reka catchment, in the northern Mediterranean. Mediterranean areas are – due to high population density, favourable natural conditions for agriculture, limited water resources, diverse ecosystems biodiversity and expected climate change impacts – a global hotspot in climate research. Additionally, the study area lies on the border with the alpine climate zone, with a strong orographic effect on weather patterns. The location, and a wide range of studied parameters, provides an interesting insight into how various emerging climate change models may impact the status of surface waters and procedures for the governance of water resources. The study contributes to the knowledge and understanding of the climate change impact on the local catchment level, using the ensemble of the RCMs. It opens discussion about the impact of RCM selection on modelling climate changes with catchment models like Soil and Water Assessment Tool. This article also questions the usability of the results for the policy and decision makers in relation to the implementation of the results into short or long-term water strategies or water/river management plans. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Intensive agriculture causes nutrient leaching and accelerates erosion processes, which threatens the good quality status of surface waters, as proposed by the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive. The purpose of this study was to define the impact of two alternative agricultural land-use change scenarios defined in a Municipal Spatial Plan on surface water quality by using the Agricultural Policy/Environmental eXtender (APEX) model. As experimental area, we chose a small Kožbanj&scaron, ček stream catchment (1464 ha) situated in the Gori&scaron, ka Brda region in Slovenia. The area, due to favorable conditions for vineyards, is facing increasing deforestation. The change of 66.3 ha of forests to vineyards would increase the sediment, nitrate, and phosphorus loads in the stream by 24.8%, 17.1%, and 10.7%, respectively. With the implementation of vegetative buffer strips as a mitigation measure of the current situation, we could reduce the sediment, nitrate, and phosphorus loads by 17.9%, 11.1%, and 3.1%, respectively, while a combination of the two land-use change scenarios would result in a slight increase of the above-mentioned loads, corresponding to 0.61%, 2.1%, and 6.6%, respectively, compared to the baseline situation. The results confirm that, as we can increase pollution levels with deforestation, we can also reduce water pollution by choosing proper types of land management measures.

The main objective of this study is to investigate the impact of the historical land use situations on the river water quality under present climate and land management conditions and what can be lessons learned from it. The historical land use situations are based on digitised historical maps of existing past land use cover distribution of small Slovenian catchment (River Reka) from 1787, 1827, 1940 and 1984. Maps were compared between each other and baseline land use situation in 2009. The well-known river basin model SWAT was used to simulate the influences of land use situations on water quality, especially in terms of suspended sediments concentration. Results indicate that the historical land use situations would decrease water quality. Lessons learned from the study are as follows: (1) based on the more than 200-year-wide research time window, we can state that vineyards and orchards are preferred agricultural land use with undesired side effect on water quality; (2) climate, terrain characteristics and wine demand on the market are the driving factors for the land use pattern – share of vineyards remains fairly constant through the years, regardless of changes in authorities; (3) historical land use patterns would, in present times, cause an increased occurrence of erosion and deterioration of environmental conditions for organisms in surface waters; and (4) the present land use pattern with regard to the observed sediment concentration is still not an optimal solution. Further land use adjustments or agri-environmental measures are required to achieve water quality improvements. Historical examples can serve as lessons learned for the future with the purpose of minimising the influences of planned land use changes on water resource quality and quantity.

In this study, we compare two economic models of urban gardening in Ljubljana, Slovenia. First is an avoided costs model (ACM) and the second one is a business model (BM). Comparison is made to exemplify the main economic differences between the two models. The difference is that producers under the BM sell surplus products, which is not the case under the ACM. The main aim of this study is to present an analysis of the phenomenon of urban gardening as a BM for small family home or allotment gardens. The survey was performed through Internet questionnaires and in some cases also with on-site interviews. Totally 127 urban gardeners from Ljubljana municipality participated in the research. The average ACM urban gardeners had on 1 m2 revenue of 4.86 EUR/m2, costs of 1.48 EUR/m2 and gross margin (savings) of 3.38 EUR/m2. Altogether, ACM brings savings of approximately 462.7 EUR per average size garden (136.69 m2) or 203 EUR per median size garden (60 m2) to the average gardener. The average BM gardener sold to the wholesale company approximately 107.0 kg of vegetables per year from 32.48 m2 of production area for an average retail price of 1.46 EUR/kg and earning revenue of 156.44 EUR/year. Costs were approximately 21.27 EUR/year. Therefore, the gross margin or earning from surpluses sold was approximately 135.17 EUR/year for the average BM gardener, which was 4.29 EUR/m2 or 1.26 EUR/kg of produce. The study offers evidence that the ACM can be upgraded with the BM. For example, if a family of two retired members have an average garden of 136 m2, they can produce vegetables for four people. Consequent surpluses for two family members can be sold for extra money. The BM should be more promoted among urban gardeners as it can offer additional income and in certain cases, when a hobby becomes a profession, also a full-time job.

The overexploitation and impairment of our freshwater resources require land management strategies that support the preservation of green and blue water flow and various ecosystem services. Historical landscape analysis and the influential driving factors of landscape development provide an essential basis for tackling current environmental questions in land and water management. Hence, this article investigates the influence of historical land use pattern on the hydrological processes and provision of blue and green water flow and storage for man and ecosystems under current climate conditions. Moreover, we discuss in how far these findings could be used to predict or optimise future land management options or as a reference for future land and water management. We used digitalized historical land use maps from 1787, 1827, 1940 and 1984 and a digital land use map of present situation from 2009 for our study areas, which are two small scale Slovenian catchments (Reka and Dragonja). The integrated river basin model soil and water assessment tool was used to simulate the land use change effects on blue and green water flow. The results showed for both catchments that the influence of land use change on total and green water quantity would be statistically insignificant but would have considerable effects on the seasonal flows. In the Reka catchment, historical situations indicate effects on spring and summer blue and green water flow due to a decreased percentage of forest and an increased percentage of grassland and vineyards in the past. Results for the Dragonja catchment indicate past shift from arable land use to forest as decrease in summer green water flow and increase in blue water flow. Possible effects are also increased levels of blue water flow and decreased levels of green water flow during the growing period of the year. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) was established for the protection of surface waters (rivers, lakes, transitional and coastal waters) and ground waters in the European Union. The main environmental objective is to achieve and maintain a good status for all waters by the target date of 2015. Models which are able to address the majority of environmental objectives are proposed within the WFD to inform the management changes required to meet current water policy goals. The use of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) catchment model is widespread throughout the world, especially to support river basin management as required by the WFD. This paper provides a critical evaluation of the use of the model by placing model performance in the Axe catchment, UK, in the context of international performance of the model. Within the constraints of the available data, SWAT represents hydrology, sediment and ortho-phosphorus concentration well for this heterogeneous catchment, but the representation of daily nitrogen concentration dynamics is poor. Temporal aggregation of model outputs from daily to monthly improved the performance metrics for all the river outputs, including nitrate. Wider review of SWAT studies showed widespread reporting of monthly performance metrics within the SWAT studies, despite the model operating at a daily time step. Poor performance for nitrate identified in this current study may be a significant factor in the choice to not report daily results. This demonstrates the importance of ascertaining the reasons for the use of temporal aggregation in modelling studies.

Changed water regime in watercourses and high loads of sediment as a product of surface flow soil erosion can cause reductions in biodiversity, which is becoming one of the main indicators of environmental quality. Especially in the light of the European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EC) which requires new approaches, methods and tools for improvement, protection and prevention of further decreasing water quality. The main aim of the WFD is to achieve good quality status of water bodies in Europe by 2015 (Volk et al., 2009). Changes in social system and climate may, regardless environmental legislation restrictions, lead to changes in land use and hence in quantity of water flow and sediment concentrations in waters. Merging the different spatial and environmental data is time consuming; therefore, the use of computer modelling tools is necessary.

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) (Directive 2000/60/EC) requires new ecological standards for rivers, lakes and coastal waters by 2015. In the United Kingdom the English Catchment Sensitive Farming Initiative has identified 40 catchments which are at risk of failing the European Commission WFD targets for good ecological status of water bodies because of a range of issues. The river Axe catchment situated in south-west England, with a mixture of diffuse and point sources of pollution, is one of these priority sites, as intensive dairy farming and cultivation of high risk crops (maize) cause problems with enhanced suspended sediment, nitrate and phosphorus levels in the river. Much of the Axe is under national and county landscape designations, making land use or management measures taken to achieve river status sensitive to these designations. For the purpose of this research the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT-2005) was used. The baseline scenario was based on field observation and interviews with the Environment Agency and farmers; it was run with and without point sources. Three different mitigation scenarios, designed to maintain the landscape of the catchment, were then tested. Field buffer strips (FBS), extensive land use management (EXT) and sheep land use management (SHP), were used to assess the effectiveness of the measures in reducing nutrient loads in the river Axe, UK. Management scenarios reduced the average annual loads at the main catchment outlet by 21.2% (FBS), 37.3% (EXT) and 45.0% (SHP), for total nitrogen and 47.7% (FBS), 60.6% (EXT) and 62.4% (SHP) for total phosphorus. The results of this study suggest that there may be a fundamental incompatibility between the delivery of WFD targets and the maintenance of viable agricultural systems necessary to maintain landscapes which are highly valued for their aesthetic, recreational and economic value.

Favourable future perspectives for rural regions need a balanced enforcement of competitiveness and social cohesion. The Goriska Brda region (72 km2) is situated by the Slovenian-Italian border. Certain areas in Goriska Brda are subject to intensive land use change, mainly from forest and grassland into vineyards. Future challenges in water, soil and land management are closely connected with the researchers’ knowledge in dealing with the sustainable use of natural resources and the development of future socio-economic stability. An integrative combination of socio-economic analyses (e.g. SWOT) and environmental simulations (e.g., a SWAT model) will be made and confronted or upgraded with stakeholder experiences and knowledge, always in dynamic dialogue with regional policy, resulting in consensus.