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Objective— Diet-induced obesity (DIO) in mice causes vascular inflammation and insulin resistance that are accompanied by decreased endothelial-derived NO production. We sought to determine whether reduced NO-cGMP signaling contributes to the deleterious effects of DIO on the vasculature and, if so, whether these effects can be blocked by increased vascular NO-cGMP signaling. Methods and Results— By using an established endothelial cell culture model of insulin resistance, exposure to palmitate, 100 μmol/L, for 3 hours induced both cellular inflammation (activation of IKKβ–nuclear factor-κB) and impaired insulin signaling via the insulin receptor substrate–phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway. Sensitivity to palmitate-induced endothelial inflammation and insulin resistance was increased when NO signaling was reduced using an endothelial NO synthase inhibitor, whereas endothelial responses to palmitate were blocked by pretreatment with either an NO donor or a cGMP analogue. To investigate whether endogenous NO-cGMP signaling protects against vascular responses to nutrient excess in vivo, adult male mice lacking endothelial NO synthase were studied. As predicted, both vascular inflammation (phosphorylated IκBα and intercellular adhesion molecule levels) and insulin resistance (phosphorylated Akt [pAkt] and phosphorylated eNOS [peNOS] levels) were increased in endothelial NO synthase −/− (eNOS −/− ) mice, reminiscent of the effect of DIO in wild-type controls. Next, we asked whether the vascular response to DIO in wild-type mice can be reversed by a pharmacological increase of cGMP signaling. C57BL6 mice were either fed a high-fat diet or remained on a low-fat diet for 8 weeks. During the final 2 weeks of the study, mice on each diet received either placebo or the phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor sildenafil, 10 mg/kg per day orally. In high-fat diet–fed mice, vascular inflammation and insulin resistance were completely prevented by sildenafil administration at a dose that had no effect in mice fed the low-fat diet. Conclusion— Reduced signaling via the NO-cGMP pathway is a mediator of vascular inflammation and insulin resistance during overnutrition induced by high-fat feeding. Therefore, phosphodiesterase-5, soluble guanylyl cyclase, and other molecules in the NO-cGMP pathway (eg, protein kinase G) constitute potential targets for the treatment of vascular dysfunction in the setting of obesity.

Objectives— Obesity causes inflammation and insulin resistance in the vasculature as well as in tissues involved in glucose metabolism such as liver, muscle, and adipose tissue. To investigate the relative susceptibility of vascular tissue to these effects, we determined the time course over which inflammation and insulin resistance develops in various tissues of mice with diet-induced obesity (DIO) and compared these tissue-based responses to changes in circulating inflammatory markers. Methods and Results— Adult male C57BL/6 mice were fed either a control low-fat diet (LF; 10% saturated fat) or a high-fat diet (HF, 60% saturated fat) for durations ranging between 1 to 14 weeks. Cellular inflammation and insulin resistance were assessed by measuring phospho-IκBα and insulin-induced phosphorylation of Akt, respectively, in extracts of thoracic aorta, liver, skeletal muscle, and visceral fat. As expected, HF feeding induced rapid increases of body weight, fat mass, and fasting insulin levels compared to controls, each of which achieved statistical significance within 4 weeks. Whereas plasma markers of inflammation became elevated relatively late in the course of DIO (eg, serum amyloid A [SAA], by Week 14), levels of phospho-IκBα in aortic lysates were elevated by 2-fold within the first week. The early onset of vascular inflammation was accompanied by biochemical evidence of both endothelial dysfunction (reduced nitric oxide production; induction of intracellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) and insulin resistance (impaired insulin-induced phosphorylation of Akt and eNOS). Although inflammation and insulin resistance were also detected in skeletal muscle and liver of HF-fed animals, these responses were observed much later (between 4 and 8 weeks of HF feeding), and they were not detected in visceral adipose tissue until 14 weeks. Conclusions— During obesity induced by HF feeding, inflammation and insulin resistance develop in the vasculature well before these responses are detected in muscle, liver, or adipose tissue. This observation suggests that the vasculature is more susceptible than other tissues to the deleterious effects of nutrient overload.

Vascular dysfunction is a major complication of metabolic disorders such as diabetes and obesity. The current studies were undertaken to determine whether inflammatory responses are activated in the vasculature of mice with diet-induced obesity, and if so, whether Toll-Like Receptor-4 (TLR4), a key mediator of innate immunity, contributes to these responses. Mice lacking TLR4 (TLR4 −/− ) and wild-type (WT) controls were fed either a low fat (LF) control diet or a diet high in saturated fat (HF) for 8 weeks. In response to HF feeding, both genotypes displayed similar increases of body weight, body fat content, and serum insulin and free fatty acid (FFA) levels compared with mice on a LF diet. In lysates of thoracic aorta from WT mice maintained on a HF diet, markers of vascular inflammation both upstream (IKKβ activity) and downstream of the transcriptional regulator, NF-κB (ICAM protein and IL-6 mRNA expression), were increased and this effect was associated with cellular insulin resistance and impaired insulin stimulation of eNOS. In contrast, vascular inflammation and impaired insulin responsiveness were not evident in aortic samples taken from TLR4 −/− mice fed the same HF diet, despite comparable increases of body fat mass. Incubation of either aortic explants from WT mice or cultured human microvascular endothelial cells with the saturated FFA, palmitate (100 μmol/L), similarly activated IKKβ, inhibited insulin signal transduction and blocked insulin-stimulated NO production. Each of these effects was subsequently shown to be dependent on both TLR4 and NF-κB activation. These findings identify the TLR4 signaling pathway as a key mediator of the deleterious effects of palmitate on endothelial NO signaling, and are the first to document a key role for TLR4 in the mechanism whereby diet-induced obesity induces vascular inflammation and insulin resistance.

Objective— Free fatty acids (FFA) are commonly elevated in diabetes and obesity and have been shown to impair nitric oxide (NO) production by endothelial cells. However, the signaling pathways responsible for FFA impairment of NO production in endothelial cells have not been characterized. Insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) regulation is critical for activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in response to stimulation by insulin or fluid shear stress. Methods and Results— We demonstrate that insulin-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS-1 and serine phosphorylation of Akt, eNOS, and NO production are significantly inhibited by treatment of bovine aortic endothelial cells with 100 μmol/L FFA composed of palmitic acid for 3 hours before stimulation with 100 nM insulin. This FFA preparation also increases, in a dose-dependent manner, IKKβ activity, which regulates activation of NF- κB, a transcriptional factor associated with inflammation. Similarly, elevation of other common FFA such as oleic and linoleic acid also induce IKKβ activation and inhibit insulin-mediated eNOS activation. Overexpression of a kinase inactive form of IKKβ blocks the ability of FFA to inhibit insulin-dependent NO production, whereas overexpression of wild-type IKKβ recapitulates the effect of FFA on insulin-dependent NO production. Conclusions— Elevated levels of common FFA found in human serum activate IKKβ in endothelial cells leading to reduced NO production, and thus may serve to link pathways involved in inflammation and endothelial dysfunction.

Objective— We investigated whether NADPH oxidase–dependent production of superoxide contributes to activation of NF-κB in endothelial cells by the saturated free fatty acid palmitate. Methods and Results— After incubation of human endothelial cells with palmitate at a concentration known to induce cellular inflammation (100 μmol/L), we measured superoxide levels by using electron spin resonance spectroscopy and the spin trap 1-hydroxy-3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine (CMH). Palmitate exposure induced a >2-fold increase in superoxide levels, an effect associated with activation of NF-κB signaling as measured by phospho-IκBα, NF-κB activity, IL-6, and ICAM expression. Reduction in superoxide levels by each of 3 different interventions—pretreatment with superoxide dismutase (SOD), diphenylene iodinium (DPI), or knockdown of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) by siRNA—attenuated palmitate-mediated NF-κB signaling. Inhibition of toll like receptor-4 (TLR4) signaling also suppressed palmitate-mediated superoxide production and associated inflammation, whereas palmitate-mediated superoxide production was not affected by overexpression of a phosphorylation mutant IκBα (NF-κB super repressor) that blocks cellular inflammation downstream of IKKβ/NF-κB. Finally, high-fat feeding increased expression of NOX4 and an upstream activator, bone morphogenic protein (BMP4), in thoracic aortic tissue from C57BL/6 mice, but not in TLR4 −/− mice, compared to low-fat fed controls. Conclusions— These results suggest that NADPH oxidase–dependent superoxide production links palmitate-stimulated TLR4 activation to NF-κB signaling in endothelial cells.

Intake of trans fatty acids (TFA), which are consumed by eating foods made from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, is associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular disease. This relation can be explained by many factors including TFA's negative effect on endothelial function and reduced nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability. In this study we investigated the effects of three different TFA (2 common isomers of C18 found in partially hydrogenated vegetable oil and a C18 isomer found from ruminant-derived-dairy products and meat) on endothelial NF-κB activation and nitric oxide (NO) production. Human endothelial cells were treated with increasing concentrations of Elaidic (trans-C18:1 (9 trans)), Linoelaidic (trans-C18:2 (9 trans, 12 trans)), and Transvaccenic (trans-C18:1 (11 trans)) for 3 h. Both Elaidic and Linoelaidic acids were associated with increasing NF-κB activation as measured by IL-6 levels and phosphorylation of IκBα, and impairment of endothelial insulin signaling and NO production, whereas Transvaccenic acid was not associated with these responses. We also measured superoxide production, which has been hypothesized to be necessary in fatty acid-dependent activation of NF-κB. Both Elaidic acid and Linoelaidic acid are associated with increased superoxide production, whereas Transvaccenic acid (which did not induce inflammatory responses) did not increase superoxide production. We observed differential activation of endothelial superoxide production, NF-κB activation, and reduction in NO production by different C18 isomers suggesting that the location and number of trans double bonds effect endothelial NF-κB activation.