Search

Before the maturation of higher-order cognitive functions, infants primarily communicate via bodily expressions. Their behavior adjustments are also shaped by caregiver reactions, which differ in timing, intensity, and nature. Although mentalizing, or reflective functioning, is thought to influence caregiver interactions, the literature has largely focused on mentalizing as an explicit, cognitive process. Given the inherently embodied nature of early parent-infant exchanges, this emphasis left a clear gap in capturing the implicit facets of parental mentalizing. Addressing this, the concept of “parental embodied mentalizing” (PEM) was developed, which pertains to a caregiver’s implicit capacity to discern and respond to an infant’s emotional states, thoughts, and intents through bodily movements, gauged via real-time, shared, kinesthetic interplays. This systematic narrative review explores the PEM construct, scrutinizing its theoretical foundations and empirical basis. We aggregate insights from relevant studies, review the current research landscape’s strengths and limitations, and pinpoint areas ripe for further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We tested the generalizability of the sensitivity-security link in a sample of 35 preschooler-mother dyads from a low socioeconomic district in Lima, Peru. We first describe maternal sensitivity and attachment security at two timepoints during early childhood. Second, we investigated the stability of attachment security and maternal sensitivity over a time span of one year. Third, we tested the association between sensitivity and security at each timepoint. Finally, we investigated whether changes in maternal sensitivity predict changes in child security. The results indicated that sensitivity and security were lower than scores reported in the literature for middle-class samples. T2 maternal sensitivity scores were significantly higher than T1 sensitivity scores, and no significant differences were found between T1 and T2 security. Sensitivity and security were associated at both timepoints, after controlling for socio-demographic variables. One-tail test indicated that changes in maternal sensitivity were associated with changes in child security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to clarify the relation between maternal sensitivity and infant attachment security during the first two years of life. A systematic search has been carried out in six databases (Medline, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Science Direct, Scopus and Psychology and Behavioural) between January 2010 and February 2023. The terms used for the search were mother–infant interaction, infant attachment, and maternal sensitivity. In total, ten studies were selected in which mother–infant dyads from the general population participated. Eight studies showed favourable results to the positive relation between both constructs and two studies did not. The main findings from this review indicate a positive association between both concepts in most studies, independently of the assessment instrument used or the moment of evaluation. These results allow us to understand the importance of fostering sensitive behaviours in mothers to optimize child development and facilitate the formation of secure attachments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The present study examined whether immigration stress was related to decreased capacities for psychophysiological stress regulation (as indexed by respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) and whether lower RSA, in turn, was related to decreased maternal sensitivity. The buffering effect of familism values was also evaluated, such that familism values were expected to minimize associations between immigration stress, RSA, and sensitivity. Method: Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of Mexican immigrant mothers (N = 277; Mage = 28 years). Mothers self-reported immigration stress and familism values, and mothers' resting RSA and sensitivity were assessed during laboratory visits. Results: Higher immigration stress was associated with higher RSA (B =.15, SE =.07, p =.04) but was unrelated to maternal sensitivity. Moreover, links between more immigration stress and higher RSA were more pronounced among mothers who reported stronger familism values (B =.20, SE =.07, p =.003). Conclusions: The present study contributes to our understanding of the sequelae of immigration stress in Mexican immigrant mothers and the cultural resiliency factors that may alter its effects. In contrast to hypotheses, findings suggested that mothers who endorse more immigration stress may also exhibit higher RSA, and links may be more pronounced among those with strong familism values. Further research is needed to advance understanding of resiliency processes that promote family functioning in vulnerable populations. Public Significance Statement: Immigration stress can present challenges for parental and family functioning, but pathways are not fully understood. Study findings suggest that Mexican immigrant mothers may demonstrate physiological resiliency in the face of immigration stress and that familism values may be a key cultural consideration in the promotion of well-being in Mexican immigrant families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights This study examined whether parental sensitivity during distressing and non‐distressing mother–infant interactions predicts changes in young children's respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) activity. Baseline RSA levels were collected from 83 children (49% female, 51% male) when children were 7 and 18 months old. Children's RSA reactivity and RSA recovery during the still‐face paradigm were collected when children were 7 months and during the strange situation procedure at 18 months. Controlling for stability of RSA activity over time, maternal sensitivity during distressing interactions at 7 months predicted changes in children's baseline RSA levels (β = −0.30) and children's RSA recovery (β = 0.25). Young children who experienced higher levels of sensitivity at 7 months had lower resting RSA levels and exhibited greater RSA recovery at 18 months. These results suggest that changes in young children's RSA activity are meaningfully related to their early caregiving experiences. We examined whether maternal sensitivity during infancy predicts changes in children's RSA activity from infancy to toddlerhood. Children who experienced higher levels of maternal sensitivity during infancy showed greater RSA recovery from a stressor during toddlerhood. Children who experienced higher levels of maternal sensitivity during infancy had lower resting RSA levels during toddlerhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caregiving plays a critical role in children’s cognitive, emotional, and psychological well-being. In the current longitudinal study, we investigated the enduring effects of early maternal behavior on processes of interbrain synchrony in adolescence. Mother-infant naturalistic interactions were filmed when infants were 3–4 months old and interactions were coded for maternal sensitivity and intrusiveness with the Coding Interactive Behavior Manual. In early adolescence (Mean = 12.30, SD = 1.25), mother-adolescent interbrain synchrony was measured using hyperscanning EEG during a naturalistic interaction of positive valence. Guided by previous hyperscanning studies, we focused on interbrain connections within the right frontotemporal interbrain network. Results indicate that maternal sensitivity in early infancy was longitudinally associated with neural synchrony in the right interbrain frontotemporal network. Post-hoc comparisons highlighted enhancement of mother-adolescent frontal-frontal connectivity, a connection that has been implicated in parent-child social communication. In contrast, maternal intrusiveness in infancy was linked with attenuation of interbrain synchrony in the right interbrain frontotemporal network. Sensitivity and intrusiveness are key maternal social orientations that have shown to be individually stable in the mother-child relationship from infancy to adulthood and foreshadow children’s positive and negative social-emotional outcomes, respectively. Our findings are the first to demonstrate that these two maternal orientations play a role in enhancing or attenuating the child’s interbrain frontotemporal network, which sustains social communication and affiliation. Results suggest that the reported long-term impact of maternal sensitivity and intrusiveness may relate, in part, to its effects on tuning the child’s brain to sociality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research and theory indicate an importance of the quality of the early caregiving environment in the development of self‐regulation. However, it is unclear how attachment security and maternal sensitivity, two related but distinct aspects of the early caregiving environment, may differentially predict self‐regulation at school start and whether a distinction between hot and cool executive function is informative in characterizing such predictions through mediation. In a 5‐year longitudinal study (n = 108), we examined these associations using measures of maternal sensitivity and attachment security at 10–12 months, executive function at 4 years, and self‐regulation at 6 years. Surprisingly, and despite methodological rigor, we found few significant bivariate associations between the study variables. We found no credible evidence of a longitudinal association between maternal sensitivity or attachment security in infancy and self‐regulation at 6 years, or between executive function at 4 years and self‐regulation at 6 years. The lack of bivariate longitudinal associations precluded us from building mediation models as intended. We discuss our null findings in terms of their potential theoretical implications, as well as how measurement type, reliability, and validity, may play a key role in determining longitudinal associations between early caregiving factors and later self‐regulation and related abilities. Research Highlights: The early caregiving environment has been implicated in the development of later self‐regulation, which includes more basic skills, such as hot and cool executive functions (EF).In a 5‐year longitudinal study, with a sample of 108 children, we rigorously measured aspects of early caregiving, EF, and self‐regulation.We found no significant longitudinal associations between early caregiving and self‐regulation at 6 years, nor between EF at 4 years and self‐regulation at 6 years.These null results highlight the complexity of modeling self‐regulation development and raise critical questions about general methodological conventions within self‐regulation development research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotion regulation (ER) is a source of risk and resilience for psychological development and everyday functioning. Despite extensive research on various early contextual predictors of child ER capacity, few studies have integrated them into the same study. Therefore, our longitudinal study investigated the joint and independent contributions of several prominent contextual predictors of child ER capacity. We followed typically developing children and their caregivers (N = 118, 47% girls) at three time points (children ages 10, 12, and 18 months). At 10 months, mothers reported household chaos, social support, and parenting stress, and maternal sensitivity was observed and coded with the Ainsworth's Maternal Sensitivity Scales. At 12 months, child–mother attachment security was assessed using the Strange Situation Procedure. Finally, at 18 months, child ER was obtained with a Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery frustration task. Correlational analyses revealed that household chaos and maternal sensitivity were significantly positively associated with child ER. Multiple regression analyses showed independent effects of household chaos and maternal sensitivity on child ER. Our partly counterintuitive results underscore the significance of cumulative risk and protective factors for ER development and suggest that household chaos and maternal sensitivity may contribute uniquely to better ER in typical toddlerhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mother–child memory conversations are a nuanced and important factor in children's memory development. The current study focuses on maternal characteristics that are related to individual differences in maternal elaborative style. It also examines the role of maternal elaborative style in children's elaborativeness in the context of reminiscing and recounting. Two hundred and nine Turkish mothers (Mage= 36.32, SD = 4.99) and their 5- to 6-year-olds (Mage in months = 66.88, SD = 4.04) (110 girls, 99 boys) participated in the current study. Results revealed that maternal individuation and balanced self-construal type predicted maternal elaborativeness, which in turn predicted child elaborativeness in reminiscing and recounting. Yet, such a relation was not observed for maternal attachment styles or sensitivity. Findings suggested the importance of maternal individuation and balanced self-construal for mothers' and children's elaborativeness in memory conversations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Childhood obesity remains a public health crisis and identification of unique prenatal and early infancy predictors of obesity risk are critically needed. Objectives: We test a comprehensive biopsychosocial model of the predictors of rapid weight gain (RWG) in the first 6 months of life. Methods: Two hundred and ninety nine pregnant women and their infants participated. Maternal prenatal psychobiological risk (PPBR) was assessed during the third trimester via maternal anthropometrics, serum biomarkers (insulin, leptin, adiponectin), and maternal report of pregnancy complications, substance use, mental health and stress. Infant stress reactivity was measured at 2 months (cortisol output, resting RSA, observed irritability, negative emotionality). At 2 and 6 months, maternal self‐report of obesogenic feeding practices and observed maternal sensitivity during three tasks were collected. RWG was classified based on change in weight‐for‐age z scores from birth to 6 months (>0.67 SD). Results: Obesogenic feeding practices predicted greater likelihood of RWG, β = 0.30, p =.0.01, independent of other predictors and covariates. Obesogenic feeding practices was the only proposed intervening mechanism that produced a significant indirect effect of PPBR on RWG, b = 0.05, S.E. = 0.04, 95% CI [0.002, 0.15], β = 0.06. Conclusion: Identifying proclivity towards obesogenic feeding practices and providing support to reduce these behaviours may enhance childhood obesity prevention efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extent to which mother and infant sleep predict maternal sensitivity as (a) main effects and (b) moderate the association between social cognition about infant crying (i.e., cry processing) and maternal sensitivity was examined in a sample of 299 mother–infant dyads (43% of mothers non-White; 50.5% of infants female). Infant- and mother-oriented cry processing were assessed prenatally using a video recall procedure and mothers self-reported demographics and characteristics reflecting emotional risk. When infants were 2 months old, mothers reported their depressive symptoms and mother and infant sleep. Maternal sensitivity and infant negative mood were observed during free play and the still face. There were no main effects of mother or infant sleep on maternal sensitivity over and above covariates. However, infant total sleep duration across night and day and mother sleep disturbance moderated the effect of mother-oriented cry processing on sensitivity. Specifically, mother-oriented cry processing was associated with lower maternal sensitivity only among mothers whose infants had lower sleep duration and who reported more sleep disturbances. Moderating effects were not apparent for infant night wakings or time awake or mothers' total sleep problems. Constrained opportunities for sleep or respite across the entire day and the totality of mothers' nighttime sleep disturbances, not just those specific to infants' night wakings, undermine maternal sensitivity by exacerbating mothers' preexisting tendency to have self-focused and negative reactions to infant distress. The efficacy of interventions designed to facilitate maternal sensitivity and infant adjustment may be enhanced by adding targeted foci on maternal and infant sleep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined if there were profiles of infants' behavioural and physiological responses during the still‐face and if these profiles were predicted by maternal sensitivity. Participants included 230 mothers (40.4% non‐white) and their 2‐month‐old infants (48.7% female). Three profiles were identified: continually increasing negative affect and decreasing respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) (17.39%); modest, classic still‐face effect for negative affect and RSA (64.35%); high negative affect, late decreasing RSA (18.26%). Infants of highly sensitive mothers were more likely to be in the modest, classic still‐face effect for negative affect and RSA profile than in the continually increasing negative affect and decreasing RSA and the high negative affect, late decreasing RSA profiles. Additionally, infants of mothers who were high in maternal sensitivity were more likely to be in the continually increasing negative affect and decreasing RSA profile compared to the high negative affect, late decreasing RSA profile. The findings demonstrate heterogeneity in infant responses and that maternal sensitivity is an important predictor of children's behavioural and physiological responses to stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maternal characteristics mainly shape attachment security in early childhood and can impact toddler's emotional and social development. Although early determinants of attachment have been widely explored in the West, the studies in non-Western cultures are limited, especially in high-risk groups such as low-SES samples. Therefore, we examined the role of maternal parenting stress, attachment dimensions of anxiety and avoidance in romantic relationships and emotional availability in toddlers' attachment security. The Turkish mothers (N = 63; Mage = 30.17; SD = 4.87) filled out a pack of questionnaires including the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF; Abidin, 1995) and Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised (ECR-R; Fraley et al., 2000) before video recorded home visits. The toddlers' (Mage = 22.96 months, SD = 7.09) attachment security was coded for Attachment Q-Sort (AQS; Waters, 1995) based on 2.5-h home-visit and 10-min free-play sessions were coded for Emotional Availability Scales (EAS; Biringen, 2008). The results showed that the mother's attachment avoidance and parenting stress were negatively associated with the child's attachment security, while the maternal sensitivity and structuring were positively associated with the child's attachment security. The mothers' behaviours on EAS did not mediate the relationship between maternal attachment dimensions and toddlers' attachment security. We showed that maternal attachment avoidance, parenting stress, lack of sensitivity and structuring behaviours could contribute to insecure attachment in Turkish toddlers. These identified factors warrant attention in the design and implementation of early intervention programs, particularly for mothers from low socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds in Turkey and in non-Western cultures characterised by similar cultural characteristics. Highlights: We examined the role of parenting stress, attachment, and emotional availability on the toddlers' attachment security. The results were obtained through observational data collected in-home visits from a sample of mothers and toddlers from low-SES background. This study represents one of the first attempts to apply Emotional Availability Scales and Attachment Q-Sort in a non-Western cultural context. Maternal attachment avoidance, parenting stress, sensitivity, and structuring emerged as potential early intervention areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Using a family network approach, we examined patterns of remembered parental rearing by both parents and associations with maternal and infant outcomes. Background: Women's memories of how they were cared for by their own mothers in childhood are associated with important outcomes in the perinatal period. However, few studies assess women's recollections of caregiving by their fathers, despite fathers' influence on the larger family context and child adjustment. Method: We combined data from two prospective longitudinal studies of mothers and their infants (N = 468) in the perinatal period to identify profiles of remembered parental rearing by both parents using latent profile analysis and examined how these profiles were associated with maternal depressive symptoms, mothers' perceived romantic relationship satisfaction, parenting, and infant socioemotional problems. Results: Four distinct profiles of remembered parental rearing emerged: two supportive parents, two unsupportive parents, a supportive mother but unsupportive father, and a supportive father but unsupportive mother. Results document the differential effects of these profiles on parenting and other maternal and infant outcomes. Conclusion: Remembering two supportive parents confers the most benefit for mothers and their infants. Implications: For mothers with nonsupportive childhood experiences, processing that legacy within a therapeutic relationship may bolster multiple perinatal domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of literature shows that adherence to some aspects of Western masculinity norms, including the suppression of emotional vulnerability, avoidance of seeking support from others, and exaggerated physical toughness, is associated with poorer psychological and social outcomes. While existing research suggests that parental gender beliefs and caregiving behaviors might influence the development of children's gendered behaviors, little is known about the developmental origins of individual differences in adherence to masculinity norms. The current study aims to address this gap and presents a longitudinal investigation of how parental gender beliefs and maternal sensitivity during infancy contribute to children's adherence to masculinity norms during middle childhood. Data were drawn from a mixed-method 9-year longitudinal study of 374 urban Chinese families (48.40% with daughters). Parental gender beliefs were assessed at 24 months, maternal sensitivity was assessed with mother–child interaction observations at 14 and 24 months, and children's self-reported adherence to masculinity norms were assessed at age 10 years. Results indicate that while parental gender beliefs had no associations with children's adherence to masculinity norms, maternal sensitivity predicted children's adherence to masculinity norms (β = −.18, p =.008) above and beyond parental gender beliefs and parental education level; moreover, there was a significant interaction of sex on the effect of maternal sensitivity on children's adherence to masculinity (β = −.23, p =.025), and the association was significant only for boys. Public Significance Statement: This is the first longitudinal study to examine the developmental influence of parenting sensitivity and gender beliefs on boys' and girls' adherence to masculinity norms. Results demonstrate that sensitive parenting may have long-term protective effects on boys' adherence to harmful gender norms and represent a pathway for intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The early caregiving environment can have lasting effects on child mental health. Animal models suggest that glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) DNA methylation plays a mediating role in linking more responsive caregiving to improved behavioral outcomes by its impact on the stress regulatory system. In this longitudinal study, we examined whether children's NR3C1 methylation levels mediate an effect of maternal sensitivity in infancy on levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior in a community sample. Maternal sensitivity of 145 mothers was rated at infant age 5 weeks, 12 months, and 30 months by observing mother–infant interactions. Buccal DNA methylation was assessed in the same children at age 6 years and maternal-reported internalizing and externalizing behavior was assessed at age 6 and 10 years. Higher sensitivity at age 5 weeks significantly predicted lower DNA methylation levels at two NR3C1 CpG loci, although methylation levels at these loci did not mediate an effect of maternal sensitivity on levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior. Overall, the study provides evidence that maternal sensitivity in early infancy is associated with DNA methylation levels at loci involved in stress regulation, but the significance of this finding for child mental health remains unclear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decades have passed since the controversy regarding the putative risks of childcare for mother–child attachment broke out. Yet, some uncertainty remains, as relevant studies have produced inconsistent evidence. Some have proposed that those conflicting findings may be due to the fact that the effects of childcare are conditioned on parenting. Accordingly, this study examined whether relations between childcare participation and mother–child attachment vary according to maternal sensitivity and autonomy support. In this sample of 236 mother–child dyads, there was no indication of main effects of childcare participation on attachment. There were, however, some interactive effects, such that the children who showed the least secure attachment behaviors were those who did not attend childcare and had either less sensitive or less autonomy-supportive mothers. The findings suggest that the effects of childcare on mother–child attachment are best understood in light of the parenting children receive at home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The goal of this work was to examine the potential implications of mothers' work‐to‐family conflict (WFC) for their sensitivity and provision of learning opportunities in parenting from infancy through middle childhood, with maternal depressive symptoms tested as a possible mediator. Background: To inform practice more effectively, researchers need to delineate the temporal dynamics for maternal experiences of work–family interface and also elucidate their dynamic implications for parenting over the family life course. Method: Five‐wave, cross‐lagged panel models with mediators were tested using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD SECCYD). Results: Although little evidence was obtained with respect to the direct links, several indirect effect cascades were identified, such that WFC at an earlier wave was associated with compromised parental functioning at a later wave via increases in depressive symptoms at a middle wave, regardless of child development periods and parenting domains and being net of extensive covariates. In addition, a transactional pattern emerged for the positive link between maternal WFC and mental distress over time. A large set of supplementary analyses were also conducted to test the robustness of the identified effects and to address potential moderating roles of some key covariates (e.g., child temperament difficulty). Conclusion: Such findings highlight the importance of illuminating the temporal dynamics for the link between maternal experiences of work–family interface and parenting from a life course perspective. Implications: Irrespective of child development periods and parenting domains, interventions targeted at facilitating mothers' navigation of work–family challenges as well as improving their psychological well‐being appear to be ultimately beneficial for their parental role functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attachment theorists claim that the quality of parental support is internalized as a mental representation of early relationship experiences. Increasingly, the content of attachment representations is evaluated by studying the extent to which adults demonstrate knowledge of the secure base script, either in the context of the attachment script assessment (ASA) or during the Adult Attachment Interview (AAIsbs). Preliminary evidence from a high‐risk sample showed that AAIsbs was more strongly associated with the quality of antecedent caregiving than was the more traditional approach to the measurement of adult attachment focused on the coherence of adults' AAI discourse. Drawing on new coding of data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD), we found that AAIsbs around age 18 years was significantly predicted by observations of maternal (r = 0.21) and paternal (r = 0.12) sensitivity assessed prospectively through age 15 years, and with attachment security in the first 3 years of life (r = 0.08). AAIsbs was also associated with existing measures of adult attachment (rs = 0.31–0.42). Pre‐registered analyses revealed that AAIsbs performed in a manner roughly comparable to traditional, though more labour‐intensive approaches to coding the AAI. Based on all available evidence from the SECCYD and the pragmatic challenges and advantages of different narrative methods for assessing adult attachment representations, researchers seeking to measure attachment representations should strongly consider the strengths of the ASA in term of practicality, performance, and adaptability to various age groups across development. Highlights: The present report examines the extent to which secure base script knowledge, as assessed by the Adult Attachment Interview (AAIsbs) has its origins in early caregiving experiences, and to report how AAIsbs performs in comparison to existing measures of adult attachment, in a large scale, normative‐risks sample of adolescents.Data were drawn from the newly re‐coded AAIs from the NICHD Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development.Overall, the AAIsbs system performs as well as traditional AAI measures, but researchers looking to examine adult attachment representations should consider using the Attachment Script Assessment both for its empirical and pragmatic advantages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This longitudinal randomized controlled trial examined the impact of a doula home visiting intervention for young, low-income mothers on parenting and toddler social-emotional development and tested whether intervention effects were moderated by maternal emotional and behavioral health characteristics. 156 mothers were offered home visits from a home visitor starting in mid-pregnancy through several years postpartum, with a community doula also working with the mother during pregnancy and after the birth. 156 received case management. Interviews, video recordings of mother-child interactions, and toddler assessments were conducted at 3 weeks, 3 months, 13 months, and 30 months of age. Intent-to-treat analyses conducted with the full sample showed some intervention effects. Moderation analyses, however, showed that most effects were concentrated among mothers engaged in high levels of risk-taking (delinquent behaviors, school suspensions, smoking, alcohol use, sexual risk-taking). Among higher risk-taking mothers, the intervention was related to less intrusiveness during early infancy, less psychological and physical aggression during toddlerhood, more sensitive parenting attitudes, and greater toddler social relatedness. Maternal depressive symptoms were only a moderator for toddler behavior problems. These findings suggest that doula home visiting may be a particularly effective model for enhancing sensitive, non-aggressive parenting among young mothers with a history of risk-taking behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Wertz et al. (2019), parents' polygenic scores of educational attainment (PGS‐EA) predicted parental sensitive responses to the child's needs for support, as observed in a dyadic task (i.e., observed sensitivity). We aimed to replicate and expand these findings by combining longitudinal data, child genotype data and several polygenic scores in the Generation R Study. Mother–child dyads participated in two developmental periods, toddlerhood (14 months old; n = 648) and early childhood (3–4 years old, n = 613). Higher maternal PGS‐EA scores predicted higher observed sensitivity in toddlerhood (b = 0.12, 95% CI 0.03, 0.20) and early childhood (b = 0.16, 95% CI 0.08, 0.24). Child PGS‐EA was significantly associated with maternal sensitivity in early childhood (b = 0.11, 95% CI 0.02, 0.21), and the effect of maternal PGS‐EA was no longer significant when correcting for child PGS‐EA. A latent factor of PGSs based on educational attainment, intelligence (IQ) and income showed similar results. These polygenic scores might be associated with maternal cognitive and behavioral skills that help shape parenting. Maternal PGSs predicted observed sensitivity over and above the maternal phenotypes, showing an additional role for PGSs in parenting research. In conclusion, we replicated the central finding of Wertz et al. (2019) that parental PGS‐EA partially explains parental sensitivity. Our findings may be consistent with evocative gene–environment correlation (rGE), emphasizing the dynamic nature of parenting behavior across time, although further research using family trios is needed to adequately test this hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research suggests that women's autonomic nervous system responses to infant cries capture processes that affect their parenting behaviors. The aim of this study was to build on prior work by testing whether pregnant women's autonomic responses to an unfamiliar infant crying also predict their infants' emerging regulation abilities. Participants included 97 women in their third trimester of pregnancy, located in the United States. Most participants identified as White/non-Hispanic (48%) or Hispanic (30%), their mean age was approximately 30 years, and the modal family income was $40,000–$79,999. Pregnant women's respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and skin conductance levels (SCL)—which are thought to capture emotional engagement and behavioral inhibition, respectively—were measured while the women watched a relaxing video and a video of an unfamiliar infant crying. Approximately 7 months later, women and their infants completed the still-face paradigm (SFP). Infants' avoidance and resistance behaviors during the SFP reunions were rated. Pregnant women's RSA and SCL responses to the infant cry video uniquely predicted infants' avoidance (but not resistance) during the SFP. Infants displayed higher levels of avoidance when their mothers exhibited lower levels of RSA reactivity or when their mothers exhibited higher levels of SCL activity in response to the infant cry video. Maternal sensitivity during mother–infant free-play interactions did not mediate the associations between pregnant women's autonomic responses to the cry video and infants' avoidant behavior during the SFP. Discussion focuses on potential mechanisms underlying associations between pregnant women's autonomic responses to infant distress and infants' socioemotional development. Public Significance Statement: Autonomic markers of pregnant women's emotional responses to an unfamiliar infant crying collected before the birth of their child could predict their young infants' later socioemotional behaviors. Because infant development provides a foundation for later social and emotional development, these findings suggest that interventions targeting pregnant women's emotional responses to infants' distress cues may lead to improvements in children's socioemotional outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioural, cognitive and emotional dysregulation related to parent borderline personality disorder (BPD) may have a major impact on parent–infant interactions. We investigated the ways in which infant social withdrawal and mother sensitivity may be associated to a BPD diagnosis in mothers. Two groups of clinic-referred mother–infant dyads were set up: one in which consulting mothers were diagnosed with BPD. Infant social withdrawal and maternal sensitivity were assessed during free-play interactions videotaped within a clinical setting. Mothers with BPD showed lower maternal sensitivity, while their infants displayed higher levels of social withdrawal behaviour when compared to dyads with no maternal psychiatric diagnosis. Infants of mothers with BPD appear at particular risk of adverse developmental outcomes from their very first months of life. Early interventions should concentrate on improving maternal interpretation and response to infant cues, such as identifying nonverbal behaviours and regulating the infant's emotional states, and on promoting mentalization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caregiving relationships in the postnatal period are critical to an infant's development. Preterm infants and their parents face unique challenges in this regard, with infants experiencing separation from parents, uncomfortable procedures, and increased biologic vulnerability, and parents facing difficulties assuming caregiver roles and increased risk for psychological distress. To better understand the NICU parent‐infant relationship, we conducted a review of the literature and identified 52 studies comparing observed maternal, infant, and dyadic interaction behavior in preterm dyads with full‐term dyads. Eighteen of 40 studies on maternal behavior found less favorable behavior, including decreased sensitivity and more intrusiveness in mothers of preterm infants, seven studies found the opposite, four studies found mixed results, and 11 studies found no differences. Seventeen of 25 studies on infant behavior found less responsiveness in preterm infants, two studies found the opposite, and the remainder found no difference. Eighteen out of 14 studies on dyad‐specific behavior reported less synchrony in preterm dyads and the remainder found no differences. We identify confounding factors that may explain variations in results, present an approach to interpret existing data by framing differences in maternal behavior as potentially adaptive in the context of prematurity, and suggest future areas for exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Childhood maltreatment is a well-established risk factor for health problems in adulthood and may also have intergenerational consequences for infant health. Childhood maltreatment may confer risk for infant health by undermining caregiver capacities for sensitive and responsive caregiving. However, associations among childhood maltreatment, maternal sensitivity, and infant health are not well understood. These processes may be of particular importance among low-income and ethnic minority populations for whom disparities in maltreatment exposure and poorer health outcomes are well-established. Method: The current study drew data from a sample of low-income, Mexican American families to examine whether maternal childhood maltreatment would be associated with more infant health concerns, and whether lower maternal sensitivity would explain their associations. Data were collected from 322 mother-infant dyads during home visits completed during pregnancy and when infants were 12, 18, and 24 weeks old. Results: Maternal childhood maltreatment exposure and lower maternal sensitivity were both associated with more infant health concerns. Maternal childhood maltreatment was not associated with maternal sensitivity. Discussion: These findings highlight potential intergenerational consequences of maternal childhood maltreatment for infant health and underscore a need for evaluating pre- and postnatal mechanisms through which these effects may be perpetuated. Furthermore, results indicate that maternal sensitivity may represent a promising target for interventions seeking to counteract intergenerational transmission processes. Clarification about underlying risk processes and potentiating resiliency characteristics may elucidate ways to better support mothers and infants across the lifespan. Significance: Childhood maltreatment is associated with a variety of health outcomes across an individual's lifespan and may have intergenerational consequences as well. The present study is among the first to investigate maternal co-regulatory behaviors (i.e., sensitivity) as a potential mechanism through which maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment may influence infant health concerns. Results suggest that both maternal childhood maltreatment history and sensitivity may shape infant outcomes before 24 weeks of age. Increasing understanding of the mechanisms through which maternal childhood maltreatment may exert cascades of influence on infant health may help to inform the development of early intervention services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theory and research have linked pretend play in early childhood with the development of language and theory of mind. In 102 mother–child dyads at 4.5 years, we examined whether (1) introducing a story stem (a play narrative with socioemotional dilemmas) in a mother–child play context increases pretend play complexity compared with mother–child free play; and (2) maternal sensitivity is associated with pretend play complexity. Further, we explored whether the story stem increased child pretend play complexity more in dyads with mothers with low sensitivity compared with highly sensitive mothers. Sensitivity was coded using Coding Interactive Behavior and pretend play complexity with a global, integrated measure of the developmental level and quantity of play. Using generalized estimating equations, we found that pretend play complexity was positively associated with introducing a story stem and maternal sensitivity. Mixed methods ancova showed no significant interaction between play situation and maternal sensitivity. The findings stress the importance of maternal sensitivity and participation for play and how introducing a story stem may help promote child pretend play complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study examined developmental trajectories of maternal sensitivity across early childhood and explored whether changes in sensitivity were predicted by changes in interparental conflict. Background: Maternal sensitivity facilitates healthy child development. Previous research has elucidated the role of interparental conflict as a determinant of sensitivity, but we know little about the trajectory of sensitivity across early childhood and the extent to which interparental conflict over time impacts sensitivity. Method: Mothers (n = 78) and their children were visited at the playground four times across early childhood (child age: 3.5 to 5.5 years). Observers reported on maternal sensitivity after each visit. Interparental conflict was self‐reported by mothers twice when their child was approximately 3.5 and 5 years old. Results: On average, both conflict and sensitivity showed continuity across early childhood. However, hierarchical linear modeling indicated significant variability in trajectories of change in sensitivity based upon frequency of interparental conflict. Conclusion: Although interparental conflict was relatively low at both times, mothers reporting increased conflict showed decreased sensitivity as their child aged. Implications: Findings underscore the importance of studying mother–child relationships within the larger familial context and provide support for the playground as an ecologically valid context to assess sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Medical interventions have improved the lives and wellbeing of prematurely born infants and their families,however, mental health interventions among these families have yet to become more widely implemented. Approximately 10 % of the population in the United States is born prematurely, with a higher incidence among families of color. Parents of premature babies face several challenges that negatively influence their mental health, their ability to bond with their babies, and ultimately their children's development. In addition to the biological impairment that certain premature babies face, their experience of medical interventions at such a young age increases their caregiving needs. This paper aims to review the literature about caregivers' attachment representation and sensitivity and its impact on caregivers' behaviors and infant attachment. It also overviews effective early interventions emphasizing the caregiver--infant relationship treatment guided by the principles of Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health due to the reverberating influence of prematurity in the whole family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Maternal perinatal depression has been shown to have long lasting effects on children's development. Studies have described the relationship of perinatal depression on children's cognition, especially negative effects on intelligence quotient (IQ). However, a recent examination of the current studies to discern the patterns and strength of associations between perinatal depression and child IQ is not available. Objective: The purpose of this systematic review is to discern the effects of perinatal depression, prenatally and within the first 12 months of the postpartum period, on the IQ of the child aged 0–18 years old. Methods: We searched the electronic databases: PubMed and CINAHL. We identified 1633 studies, and included 17 studies in the final review based on pre-determined criteria. After the data was extracted, we assessed the strength of the study using the national heart, lung, and blood institute quality assessment tool for observational cohort and cross-sectional studies. This systematic review had a total sample of 10,757 participants. Results: Across the studies, we identified a relationship between limited maternal responsiveness due to postpartum depression and a decrease in full IQ scores in younger children. Male children were found to be more sensitive to the postpartum depression, resulting in a decrease in IQs, in comparison to female children. Conclusions: Policies should be implemented to identify women suffering from perinatal depression to mitigate the effects of the disorder for both the mother and her child. Significance: Maternal perinatal depression has been shown to have far-reaching effects on children's development. However, a recent examination of the current studies to discern the associations between perinatal depression and child IQ is not available. In this systematic review, we identified a relationship between limited maternal responsiveness due to postpartum depression and a decrease in full IQ scores in younger children. Male children were more sensitive to postpartum depression, resulting in a decrease in IQs, in comparison to female children.. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The association between prosocial behavior and adolescents' social class—defined as one's parents' position in society assessed in terms of education, income, and occupation status—is far from conclusive and the moderators of the link have not been fully researched. Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD SECCYD) (N = 1,058), this study investigated the association between social class and 5th graders' prosocial behavior, as well as the moderating roles of maternal sensitivity, positive family emotional expressiveness, teacher-student relationship, and peer support. The current research found that social class was positively associated with adolescents' prosocial behavior, and the positive association between social class and prosocial behavior was less pronounced for adolescents with higher levels of maternal sensitivity, positive family emotional expressiveness, teacher-student relationship, and peer support than those with lower levels of maternal sensitivity, positive family emotional expressiveness, teacher-student relationship, and peer support. The present findings yield evidence on the negative influence of low social class on adolescents' prosocial behavior, but this effect would be buffered by supportive and healthy relationships in family and school contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Few studies have longitudinally assessed the relationship between infant stress reactivity and future parenting style. Studies show that stress-induced plasma cortisol concentrations are stable over development and that they can be utilized as a marker for stress reactivity. This study investigates the relationship between stress-induced plasma cortisol concentrations in infancy and later parenting behavior in a translational nonhuman primate model. We hypothesized that higher stress-induced cortisol levels in infancy would predict impairments in maternal behaviors in adulthood. Subjects were rhesus macaque females (N = 122; Macaca mulatta), assessed as infants and again as mothers. At 3-4 months of age, subjects underwent a standardized BioBehavioral Assessment during which blood samples were obtained and they were assessed for behaviorally inhibition. Approximately 7 years later, subjects were observed as they interacted with their own offspring for four 300-s sessions. Typical rhesus monkey mother-offspring behaviors were recorded, including approaches and leaves and maternal cradling. Results showed that subjects' stress-induced cortisol concentrations and whether they exhibited behavioral inhibition as infants predicted later maternal behavior, with high cortisol concentrations and behavioral inhibition predicting high rates of offspring approaches and leaves and low rates of maternal cradling. Results also showed that higher stress-induced cortisol concentrations in infancy predicted higher scores on the Brown Index, an indication that the subjects' offspring, rather than the subject themselves, initiated changes in proximity. Taken together, these results suggest that individuals that exhibit higher stress-induced cortisol concentrations and behavioral inhibition at 3-4 months of age are at risk for engaging in less sensitive parenting behaviors as adults. To the extent that these findings generalize to humans, they suggest an important link between stress-induced cortisol concentrations and behavioral inhibition in infancy and behavior later in life, such that early-life stress reactivity can serve as a marker for later parenting behavior.

Abstract Background Distinguishing whether and how pre-existing characteristics impact maternal responses to adversity is difficult: Does prior well-being decrease the likelihood of encountering stressful experiences? Does it protect against adversity’s negative effects? We examine whether the interaction between relatively uniformly experienced adversity (due to COVID-19 experience) and individual variation in pre-existing (i.e., pre-pandemic onset) distress predicted mothers’ pandemic levels of distress and insensitive caregiving within a country reporting low COVID-19 death rates, and strict nationwide regulations. Method Fifty-one Singaporean mothers and their preschool-aged children provided data across two waves. Pre- pandemic onset maternal distress (i.e., psychological distress, anxiety, and parenting stress) was captured via self-reports and maternal sensitivity was coded from videos. Measures were repeated after the pandemic’s onset along with questionnaires concerning perceived COVID-19 adversity (e.g., COVID-19’s impact upon stress caring for children, housework, job demands, etc.) and pandemic-related objective experiences (e.g., income, COVID-19 diagnoses, etc.). Regression analyses (SPSS v28) considered pre-pandemic onset maternal distress, COVID-19 stress, and their interaction upon post-pandemic onset maternal distress. Models were re-run with appropriate covariates (e.g., objective experience) when significant findings were observed. To rule out alternative models, follow up analyses (PROCESS Model) considered whether COVID-19 stress mediated pre- and post-pandemic onset associations. Models involving maternal sensitivity followed a similar data analytic plan. Results Pre-pandemic maternal distress moderated the association between COVID-19 perceived stress and pandemic levels of maternal distress (β = 0.22, p

Parenting is a key contributor to child development. The effects of parenting, however, also depend on child characteristics, including genetic factors. A more complete appraisal of the role of parenting thus requires a comprehensive developmental model which explores questions about parenting behavior, child susceptibility to parenting, and child psychopathology. Moving forward, we need to not only be concerned about sample sizes that limit testing of comprehensive models but also the need to replicate findings across multiple settings and samples. A consortium which harmonises key measures offers the opportunity to examine these questions. The Developmental Research in Environmental Adversity, Mental health, BIological susceptibility and Gender (DREAM BIG) consortium includes six international longitudinal prospective birth cohorts to explore the early life origins of major psychiatric disorders in childhood. Here, we will provide a brief overview of parental care research, methodological limitations, and two exciting recent attempts (i.e., the DREAM BIG consortium and the CATS-project), that address key methodological challenges.

Childhood maltreatment is a predictor of subsequent parenting behaviors; however, the mechanisms explaining this association have been understudied. The present study examined the indirect effect of childhood maltreatment on maternal sensitivity to distress via (a) emotion regulation difficulties, (b) negative attributions about infant crying, (c) minimizing attributions about infant crying, and (d) situational attributions about infant crying. The sample included 259 primiparous mothers (131 Black and 128 White) and their 6-month-old infants (52% female). Mothers retrospectively reported on their childhood history of maltreatment when their infants were about 2 years old. Emotion regulation difficulties and causal attributions about infant crying were assessed prenatally. Maternal sensitivity to distress was rated during three distress-eliciting tasks when children were 6 months old. Results from the structural equation model demonstrated that maternal childhood maltreatment was significantly positively associated with negative attributions about infant crying but not with emotion regulation difficulties, minimizing attributions, or situational attributions about crying. Furthermore, negative attributions about crying were associated with lower sensitivity to distress, and there was an indirect effect of childhood maltreatment on sensitivity to distress via negative attributions about infant distress. These effects were significant above and beyond the effects of coherence of mind, concurrent depressive symptoms, infant affect, maternal age, race, education, marital status, and income-to-needs ratio. The results suggest that altering negative attributions about infant crying may be an important area to intervene during the prenatal period to reduce continuity in maladaptive parenting across generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research found an association between mother–infant attachment and antibiotic use. Ambivalent-attached infants are more likely to take antibiotics than other infants, and their mothers tend to be less sensitive to their needs than most. This finding is important because it shows the association between psychological processes, early relationships, and health outcomes. We aim to learn about children with high-risk attachment relationships, such as disorganized-attached infants. This study compares antibiotic use, infant–mother interactive behavior, and health indicators according to infant attachment patterns (including disorganized attachment). For this purpose, we observed mothers–infants' interactive behavior in free play at nine months and infants' attachment in the Ainsworth Strange Situation at twelve months. Participants included 77 girls and 104 boys (full-term and preterm) and their mothers. Paradoxically, mothers of disorganized-attached infants reported that their children were ill only 1.56 times on average, but 61% of their children used antibiotics in the first nine months. The other mothers reported that their children were sick 5.73 times on average, but only 54% of their children used antibiotics in the same period. Infants with disorganized attachment had mothers who were more literate and less sensitive. These results add to a body of research that shows that early high-risk relationships affect children's lives at multiple levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the prospective associations among the trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and child executive function (EF) across early and middle childhood, and tested the mediating role of maternal sensitivity in the links between change in maternal depressive symptoms and the growth of child EF. Participants included 1,364 children and mothers from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD SECCYD). We found that maternal depressive symptoms (from 6 months to Grade 5) and sensitivity (from 36 months to Grade 5) decreased, whereas child EF (planning skills; from Grade 1 to 5) increased over time. We also found several direct associations: (a) lower maternal depressive symptoms at 36 months predicted higher sensitivity at 54 months; (b) higher sensitivity at 54 months and a faster decrease in sensitivity from 36 months to Grade 5 predicted higher child EF in Grade 1; and (c) higher sensitivity at 54 months predicted greater growth of EF from Grade 1 to 5. In addition, two mediation effects were found as follows: Lower levels of maternal depressive symptoms at 36 months predicted both higher levels of child EF in Grade 1 and greater growth of EF from Grade 1 to 5 through higher levels of maternal sensitivity at 54 months. The results suggest that early maternal depressive symptoms may have long-term effects on the growth of EF, especially planning skills, during middle childhood, and that one important pathway that maternal depressive symptoms affect child EF outcomes through maternal sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence documenting associations between 5-HTTLPR and parenting behavior led to testing the hypothesis that this polymorphism moderates the effect of the quality of environmental context on maternal sensitivity. Participants were 210 Portuguese mothers and their preschool children, recruited from the community. An index reflecting the quality of the environmental context was derived based on nine markers (e.g. single parenthood; parental education, economic difficulties, family conflict, maternal psychopathology). Maternal sensitivity was measured observationally. Maternal saliva was collected with OraGene kits for genetic analysis. Results revealed a gene-X-environment interaction, such that short-allele homozygotes proved more sensitive to the family context than long-allele carriers (i.e. sL/LL), displaying the highest and lowest levels of maternal sensitivity, depending on, respectively, low and high quality levels of the environmental context. Because even mothers carrying the long allele evinced similar responsiveness to the environmental context, but to a lesser extent, findings proved consistent with the weak differential susceptibility model of person-X-context interaction. Results are discussed in light of prior and related gene-X-environment findings.