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There is growing interest in the role that urban forests can play as urban microclimate modifiers. Tree shade and evapotranspiration affect energy fluxes and mitigate microclimate conditions, with beneficial effects on human health and outdoor comfort. The aim of this study was to investigate surface temperature () variability under the shade of different tree species and to test the capability in predicting of a proposed heat transfer model. Surface temperature data on asphalt and grass under different shading conditions were collected in the Cascine park, Florence, Italy, and were used to test the performance of a one-dimensional heat transfer model integrated with a routine for estimating the effect of plant canopies on surface heat transfer. Shading effects of 10 tree species commonly used in Italian urban settings were determined by considering the infrared radiation and the tree canopy leaf area index (LAI). The results indicate that, on asphalt, was negatively related to the LAI of trees ( reduction ranging from 13.8 to 22.8°C). On grass, this relationship was weaker probably because of the combined effect of shade and grass evapotranspiration on ( reduction ranged from 6.9 to 9.4°C). A sensitivity analysis confirmed that other factors linked to soil water content play an important role in reduction of grassed areas. Our findings suggest that the energy balance model can be effectively used to estimate of the urban pavement under different shading conditions and can be applied to the analysis of microclimate conditions of urban green spaces.

Leaf phenology is shifting in response to global warming YONGSHUO and FU et al. (2014). While changes in phenological spring events due to global warming have been widely documented, changes in autumn phenology, and therefore in growing season length, are less studied and poorly understood VITASSE et al. (2009). European phenological records indicate that leaf unfolding has advanced an average of 2-3 days per decade for the last five decades PEÑUELAS and FILELLA (2001); PEÑUELAS et al. (2002); MENZEL et al. (2006); GORDO and SANZ (2009) and that leaf senescence or fall has been delayed by 1-2.5 days per decade MENZEL and FABIAN (1999); PEÑUELAS et al. (2002); MATSUMOTO et al. (2003); GORDO and SANZ (2009). Changes in the dates of leaf senescence and fall in the phenological records, however, are slower, more heterogeneous and less consistent than those for leaf unfolding PEÑUELAS et al. (2002); MENZEL et al. (2006). This alteration affects surface albedo, ecosystem carbon balance and evapotranspiration, forest productivity, the timing of the transitions between active and dormant stages. In a previous study JOLLY et al. (2005) the use of a generalized bioclimatic index (growing season index, GSI), based on photoperiod, vapour pressure deficit and minimum temperature, was used to asses autumn canopy foliar dynamics in different ecosystems. This study investigates the use of this index at four Mediterranean (central of Italy) meteorological stations with long time series datasets (1955-2013) set on different climatic area. A preliminary analysis shows that photoperiod is the most important factor affecting GSI. The index shows little interannual variations for all the stations, except the one located in the mountains. This station is characterized by a colder climate than the others and for this reason minimum temperature becomes more important than photoperiod affecting GSI interannual variability. Our results suggest that further investigations on the definition of the growing season index are needed in order to apply it to the assessment of autumn canopy foliar dynamics in a Mediterranean.

In this article, the relationships between some urban planning indicators (GCR, green cover ratio; LCR, Lawn cover ratio; TCR, Tree cover ratio; SCR, street cover ratio; BCR, building cover ratio; BVD, Building volume density) and intra-urban minimum and maximum average summer temperatures of Florence (Italy) were investigated. These indicators were calculated at different scales (areas of 10m to 500m radius) within the urban environment. Results showed that all the indicators can be used to assess the intra-urban distribution of minimum air temperature values at all scales. Maximum air temperature was affected by GCR and TCR especially near the stations (radius up to 50 m), and by SCR at all scales, and the significance increased with radius. A 10% increase in LCR determined a reduction in minimum summer temperature from 0.14 degrees C (radius=10m; p

Assessing future climate trends and global warming requires the analysis of long and heterogeneous time series. Gaps in the data series, due to malfunctioning or poorly calibrated instrumentation, can introduce a bias that should be considered in the final assessment. Therefore data quality is a strategic issue for the reliability of this kind of studies and particularly missing data management strategy is a key aspect. This study focuses on uncertainty introduced on climate change trend analysis by the use of incomplete temperature time series recorded by weather stations. Two data quality approaches are evaluated: replacement or filling gap techniques by interpolation and exclusion criteria based on the maximum acceptable number of missing values in a time series. In this study the regression method based on a neighboring station to estimate missing data of another station has been chosen among several interpolation methods. Several complete temperature time series are used to simulate the occurrence of random and consecutive missing values and compare the uncertainty of trend estimation. The two methods are applied to the incomplete data series and the uncertainty in trend analysis results introduced by the two methods is evaluated and compared.

The Program for cross-border Interreg Italy / Slovenia 2007-2013 called Climaparks Project aims to highlight the impacts of climate change in protected areas and in particular on the flora and fauna and define a range of management strategies to mitigate negative effects so that such policies could be a reference for the entire area. To analyze the climate of the Po Delta and its changes we have made a search of the historical sources of the measurements of meteorological stations located in the vicinity of the monitoring sites (Mesola Wood, Ferrara and Classe Pine forest, Ravenna). The survey identified some weather stations in possession time series validated by institutions such as the Ermes DEXTER Meteorological Service of Emilia-Romagna, ARPAV Meteorological Service of the Veneto Region and the Province of Ferrara involved in the registration of meteorological data that have provided their databases. From May 2011 as part of the Climaparks program has been installed a weather station complete with sensors for temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed and direction and managed by ARPA Emilia-Romagna Region, which has allowed us to detect in real time the parameters weather for this station. Since 1990 the time series analysis confirmed a general trend of rising temperatures in the study area showing a significant increase of the minimum, average and maximum temperatures at a rate of +0.8 degrees C per decade corresponding to an increase of 8 degrees C per century.

Proteinuria is a recognized early marker of kidney damage and a risk factor to develop chronic kidney disease, and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) as well as being a marker of cardiovascular diseases. In low income countries infectious diseases, mainly post-infectious glomerulonephritis, by increasing proteinuria, add substantial burden in enhancing the global prevalence of chronic kidney disease and are the main cause of ESRD. Few information is available on the different meanings of proteinuria in urban and rural settings. HYDY (HYpertension and Diabetes in Yemen) study is a population-based, cross-sectional survey on 10 242 subjects (5063 male and 5179 female) aged 15-69 years, stratified by age decades, gender and urban/rural residency designed to investigate the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension, and proteinuria and their relationships. Design and methods: The burden of hypertension and diabetes in the population was assessed by taking blood pressure (BP) and fasting glucose (FG) measurements on two visits. BP measurements were obtained with a semiautomatic sphygmomanometer (Omron Ltd, Matsusaka, Japan). Hypertension was defined as systolic BP >= 140 mmHg and/or diastolic BP >= 90 mmHg and/or self-reported use of antihypertensive drugs. Finger-prick blood samples from fasting (> 8 h) subjects were used to measure FG (Accutrend, Roche, Germany). Diabetes was defined as fasting glucose >= 126 mg/dL or self-reported use of hypoglycaemic medications. A urine sample was collected and a dipstick test (Auction sticks A, Menarini, Florence, Italy) was performed, results being decided by visual comparison of the test strip with a color chart. Results of dipstick urinary protein analysis were recorded as follows: negative (0), trace (+/-) or proteinuria (1+, 2+, 3+ or 4+). Odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) for associations were determined by multivariable logistic regression. Results The survey was completed within 16 months, with an overall response rate of 92% in urban and 94% in rural locations. While hypertension was more prevalent among rural dwellers (adjusted OR 1.23; 95% Cl 1.08 to 1.41), hypertension awareness (0.56; 0.45 to 0.71) and allocation to antihypertensive treatment (0.61; 0.48 to 0.76) were more prevalent among urban residents. Diabetes was less prevalent in rural areas (0.70; 0.58 to 0.85). The presence of urinary protein (trace or more) at dipstick test are presented in table I. Overall, 6.2% of Yemen population aged 15-69 years had proteinuria (>1+) at dipstick test, being more prevalent in rural (7.3%) than in urban residents (5.1%) (OR 1.63; 1.38-1.93). The association of proteinuria with rural setting was evaluated after adjustment for diet habits, self-reported sedentary lifestyle, daily smoking, obesity, abdominal obesity, high cholesterol, hypertension and diabetes. Proteinuria was the only investigated risk condition more prevalent in rural than in urban areas (Figure 1). After adjustment with different models, proteinuria was independently associated with diabetes only among urban residents (1.82; 1.15 to 2.89), whereas the association with hypertension was present both in urban (1.97;1.35 to 2.87) and rural settings (1.93;1.44 to 2.59). Most importantly 3.7% and 5.6% of subjects investigated in urban and rural areas respectively had proteinuria in the absence of hypertension and diabetes. The amount of overlap between hypertension, diabetes and proteinuria among urban and rural dwellers is shown in Figure 2. Differently from hypertension and diabetes, proteinuria showed an inverse relationship with age, thus suggesting a different background Discussion In Yemen the prevalence of proteinuria is higher among rural than urban dwellers. The amount of overlap between hypertension, diabetes and proteinuria indicates that the majority of proteinuria is neither related to hypertension nor diabetes. It is conceivable that hypertension among rural residents might be linked with pre-existing kidney disease. The inverse relationship between proteinuria and age compared with other complications/risk factors also suggests a completely different background. Difference between rural and urban areas might also be caused by the disparity in health care between different Yemenareas.

Introduction Although globalization in the developing countries can contribute to increase the prevalence of high blood pressure (BP) by spreading unhealthy lifestyle and dietary habits, it might offer favorable opportunities by improving the dissemination of knowledge and by achieving a high level of education, as well as by increasing contacts with health services. In Yemen the transportation system is poor. Thus, extending the few information available regarding the prevalence, awareness, treatment and control rates of hypertension, which are limited to the capital area to a national level, might lead to biased results. The HYDY (HYpertension and Diabetes in Yemen) study was therefore performed by stratifying the country into three different geographic areas (capital, inland, coast) to investigate the effects of urbanization, geographical area, and air temperature on hypertension burden and kidney damage. Design and methods: A multistage stratified sampling method was used: - in the first stage, Yemen was stratified into 3 regions, capital area, inland and coast selected to be representative of the country: - in the second stage, rural and urban regions were identified from each area; - In the third stage, districts were identified within each urban and rural region; - in the final stage, 250 adult participants from each district were allocated to a cluster stratified by gender and age decades years (25-34; 35-44; 45-54; 55-69) to a total of 10 000 individuals. All subjects (n=10242) received two visits separated by few days to confirm the diagnosis of hypertension. Hypertension was defined as systolic BP >= 140 mmHg and/or diastolic BP >= 90 mmHg and/or self-reported use of antihypertensive drugs. Prevalence rates were weighted to represent the Yemeni population aged 15-69 years in 2008. Air temperature was measured at participants home using digital thermometers (Checktemp, Hanna Instruments, Italy) (accuracy: ± 0.3 1C; range 20 to 90 1C). Covariates included gender, age in decades, living area (rural/urban), geographical area, air temperature and education level. The model was also adjusted for potential confounders including co-morbidities (diabetes mellitus, overweight or obesity, high cholesterol and high triglycerides, and behavioral factors (sedentary lifestyle, smoking, fruit and vegetable consumption). Results Overall 1307 participants fulfilled the criteria of hypertension, corresponding to an age (15-69 years) weighted prevalence of 7.7% (95% CI 7.2 to 8.1). When compared to urban dwellers, rural dwellers had similar hypertension prevalence (adjusted OR 1.03;95% Cl 0.91 to 1.17). However, at logistic regression analysis (adjusted for age, urban/rural residency, demographic characteristics, air temperature, health behavior, risk factors, and associated clinical conditions) rates of hypertension progressively increased from the capital (6.4%; 5.8 to 7.0), to inland (7.9%;7.0 to 8.7), to the coastal area (10.1%;8.9 to 11.4). At logistic regression analysis differences between geographic areas were independent of urban/rural residency, demographic characteristics, air temperature, health behavior, risk factors and associated clinical conditions (Figure 1). Regional variations in rates of hypertension were associated with changing rates of awareness, treatment and control. Self-reported BP measurement, hypertension awareness, drug treatment and BP control were favorably affected by living in the capital area. The average air temperatures recorded at participants' homes were 22.0 °C (95% CI 21.9-22.1 °C) in the capital area, 25.4 1C (25.3-25.5°C) in the inland and 28.3 °C (28.1-28.4 °C) in the coastal area. Air temperature (although significant) limited only the effect on hypertension prevalence estimation (B coefficient 0.020 ± 0.010). A negative correlation between temperature and BP was reported and geographic distribution of hypertension burden follows an opposite direction than average air temperature measured during home visits, as hypertension prevalence is higher in the coast than in the highlands Discussion In Yemen, the prevalence of hypertension is low, probably because the country is still in the first stages of the epidemiological transition. According to this large population study, hypertension prevalence is not affected by urban or rural residency and is favorably affected by urbanization and by living in the capital area. One of the most important HYDY findings is the regional variation in hypertension prevalence as hypertension rates are higher in the in remote areas of the country.

The aim of this work is to present the cultural heritage and importance of the "Pietro Monte" meterological observatory. In 1856, the Barnabite Father Pietro Monte (1823-1888) founded a meteorological observatory in Leghorn (Tuscany). Tuscany is in the central part of Italy and can be considered the birthplace of meteorology. In the 17th century, the first meteorological instruments were created and the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II de 'Medici, made the first attempt to create a European meteorological network, the so called "Rete Medicea". Having already developed a strong interest in weather science, when the young Father Pietro Monte arrived in Leghorn, he set up a weather station near the Church of San Sebastiano. In 1862 the Meteorological Observatory was transferred to the Royal High School, today's High School 'ISIS Niccolini-Palli'. Here Pietro Monte built a more efficient laboratory where he collected and verified a large number of observations that were then published in the local journal and sent to Ufficio Centrale di Ecologia Agraria di Roma (UCEA). After his death, the observatory was managed by the teachers of the "Istituto Nautico" and by the municipality until 1998. In 2003, after a period of inactivity, monitoring was resumed by the "Centro di Meteorologia Marina e Monitoraggio Ambientale del Mediterraneo" (CoMMA-Med by IBIMET, Tuscany region and Leghorn province). In 2007, all the historical archives of the Meteorological observatory "Pietro Monte" were reproduced using digital photography. Digitization and storage of these datasets in an electronic format is already in place in collaboration with the students of the Istituto Tecnico Nautico "A. Cappellini". The management and the analysis of such an important historical archive can also be a powerful training environment for students wishing to experience meteorological studies.

The HYpertension and Diabetes in Yemen (HYDY) study is a National cross-sectional population-based survey to evaluate cardiovascular risk factors in subjects aged 6-65 years (n = 12247). AIM: to establish reference growth charts for waist circumference (WC) among Yemeni children and adolescents aged 6 to 19 years. Design and methods: data were collected in 2008 including 1550 females and 1564 males. Data collection was conducted at home in rural as well urban locations in three different geographic areas (highlands - governorate of Sana'a; inland - governorate of Taizz; and coast - governorates of Al Hudaydah and Hadramaut), by centrally trained investigators of both genders. Households were selected because in developing countries not all children have access to school. WC was measured with a non-elastic tape positioned at a point midway between the lower border of the rib cage and the top of the iliac crest. Measures have been taken to attain complete reliability and to reduce variation to reasonable limits. Data were checked for outliers using a cut-off of ± 5 SD of the corresponding age and sex Z-scores. Smoothed age and gender-specific percentiles (3rd, 5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, 95th, and 97th) for WC were constructed by means of the Box-Cox normal distribution (LMS method of centiles estimation). Results: the response rate was 96% in urban and 97% in rural locations. WC increased with age among both boys and girls (see table). Boys had a higher WC than girls until early adolescence (54.1 ± 7.7 vs. 53.1 ± 8.7 cm, p11 yrs). Girls had lower 50th and 90th WC than boys in younger ages (6-11 years), but higher in older ages (12-19 years). Conclusions: this study provides the first reference growth charts for waist circumference of Yemeni children and adolescents aged 6 to 19 years. In Yemen, where central obesity is more prevalent in women than men, gender related differences seems to originate at early adolescence when, differently from what observed in Western countries, waist circumference starts to increase more rapidly in girls than in boys.

Presentation of the data specification for the Thematic Working Group on Human Health for the application of the INSPIRE Directive