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Disruptive student behavior is a significant challenge in schools and a predictor of student failure. Effective classroom management is a crucial skill that middle level teachers must acquire to foster student engagement and learning. This qualitative study explored the experiences and perceptions of 35 middle level teachers in both general education and special education settings regarding effective classroom management techniques. Eight focus group interviews were conducted with 25 general education teachers and 10 special education teachers at one of five middle schools in Kansas, Missouri, or Utah. Focus group transcripts were analyzed using iterative qualitative content analysis to identify themes and subthemes. Findings revealed that effective classroom management includes teachers' use of appropriate positive and negative reinforcement, student buy-in to reward systems, positive immediate feedback to students, teachers' consistent follow-through with consequences, and positive teacher-student relationships. We also report similarities and differences between middle level general education and special education teachers' perceptions. Limitations and areas for future research are addressed.

Transitioning from elementary to middle school is a time of particular vulnerability for students with behavior problems. This study examined the effects of class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT) in three middle school classrooms to determine whether this multitiered intervention could help teachers proactively manage student behavior. With a focus on teaching classroom expectations, delivering behavior-specific praise, and providing differential reinforcement within an interdependent group contingency, CW-FIT is designed to teach functional replacement behaviors that support students' academic engagement. Intervention effects were assessed with seventh- and eighth-grade students from diverse backgrounds. Results, evaluated using a single-subject withdrawal (ABAB) design, indicated improved rates of on-task behavior at both class-wide and individual student levels, with corresponding increases in teacher praise and decreases in teacher reprimands. The positive way in which participants viewed CW-FIT implementation and its accompanying effects on student behaviors was consistent with earlier findings in elementary schools. Study limitations and areas for future research are discussed. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED616822.]

At school entry, girls are rated by teachers as more competent on measures of social skills than boys. It is less clear if this higher rating is stable or grows over time. To address this question, multiple group curve of factors models investigated gender-specific growth trajectories across seven waves of measurement in a large, longitudinal sample (N = 1024, NICHD SECCYD). Results showed that girls' social skills were consistently rated higher from kindergarten to sixth grade, and the effect size was moderate (latent Cohen's "d" = 0.37 to 0.62). Boys demonstrated greater heterogeneity in social skills at nearly every grade with the gender difference in variability stable after second grade. An examination of gender differences in growth trajectories showed that boys demonstrated a linear decrease over time, whereas girls' social skills did not significantly change over time after accounting for initial level of social skills in kindergarten.

The longitudinal relations between teacher-student relationship quality (TSRQ) and student achievement were examined to determine the directional associations between the quality of teacher-rated closeness and conflict with students, and measured math and reading achievement in a large, multisite sample of U.S. youth at first, third, and fifth grade. A longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis model of panel data was employed. After testing longitudinal factorial invariance across time, we tested heterogeneity in the factor variances and differences in the latent means. Math and reading achievement had longitudinal reciprocal relations. Math achievement explained small differences in subsequent teacher-rated closeness after controlling for previous levels of math achievement and teacher-rated closeness. Teacher-rated conflict served as a small but significant predictor of subsequent math achievement across measured time points but previous teacher-rated closeness did not explain subsequent reading or math achievement at any time point. Teacher-rated conflict was relatively stable across grades, whereas teacher-rated closeness varied from first to third grade. Reading and math achievement were highly stable predictors of future achievement. The findings suggested that in a lower-risk sample, measures of TSRQ and achievement may serve as predictors or outcomes and directionality of effects should not be assumed in advance.

School climate is a broad, multi-dimensional construct that represents the quality and character of school life. Although many student-reported measures of school climate are available, less is known about the specific dimensions assessed by various measures. Using three comprehensive models of school climate as a guide, a systematic literature review of school climate measurement tools was conducted with two main questions. First, which dimensions are identified and measured in published studies of student-reported school climate? Second, what overlap in studies of student-reported school climate measures exist with the model dimensions? Results from the review of 18 school climate measures largely supported five dimensions (safety, relationships, teaching and learning, institutional environment, and school improvement processes) with at least three dimensions present within all reviewed measures. The discussion elaborates on the dimensions and sub-dimensions assessed in these tools, implications for failing to measure the sub-dimension of respect for diversity, and a new sub-dimension titled academic orientation that emerged from overlap in measurement tools.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often present with difficulty in sustaining engagement, attention, and have disruptive behavior in classroom settings. Without appropriate intervention, these challenging behaviors often persist and negatively impact educational outcomes. Self-monitoring is a well-supported evidence-based practice for addressing challenging behaviors and improving pro-social behaviors for individuals with ASD. Self-monitoring procedures utilizing a handheld computer-based technology is an unobtrusive and innovative way of implementing the intervention. A withdrawal design was employed to assess the effectiveness of a technologically-delivered self-monitoring intervention (I-Connect) in improving on-task and task completion behaviors and decreasing disruptive behavior with four adolescents with ASD. Results demonstrated improvements in on-task and task completion behaviors across all four participants and disruptive behavior improved for two participants.

Individual differences in Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities are related to individual differences in math problem solving. However, it is less clear whether cognitive abilities are associated with math problem solving directly or indirectly via math component skills and whether these relations differ across grade levels. We used multigroup structural equation models to examine direct and indirect CHC-based cognitive ability relations with math problem solving across six grade-level groups using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition and the Kaufman Tests of Educational Achievement, Second Edition co-normed standardization sample data (N = 2,117). After testing factorial invariance of the cognitive constructs across grade levels, we assessed whether the main findings were similar across higher-order and bifactor models. In the higher-order model, the Crystallized Ability, Visual Processing, and Short-Term Memory constucts had direct and indirect relations with math problem solving, whereas the Learning Efficiency and Retrieval Fluency constructs had only indirect relations with math problem solving via math computation. The integrated cognitive ability and math achievement relations were generally consistent across the CHC models of intelligence. In the higher-order model, the g factor operated indirectly on math computation and math problem solving, whereas in the bifactor model, the first-order G factor had direct relations with math computation and math problem solving. In both models, g/G was the most consistent and largest cognitive predictor of math skills. Last, the relation of math computation with math problem solving increased as grade level increased. Theoretical implications for math development and considerations for school psychologists are discussed.

Students with developmental disabilities have been found to exhibit higher rates of problem behavior in the classroom than their typically developing peers. Effectively addressing these students' behavior concerns requires the identification of interventions that can be implemented in an educational setting. Furthermore, matching intervention strategies to the function of a student's problem behavior may increase its effectiveness. There are data to suggest that students with disabilities exhibit escape-maintained problem behavior in the classroom twice as frequently as problem behavior maintained by other consequences such as attention or access to tangibles. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review was to identify school-based intervention strategies that have been used to reduce the disruptive behavior of students with developmental disabilities. In total, 12 articles met search criteria, with escape extinction, curricular modification, and noncontingent escape serving as the most frequently employed intervention strategies. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Cognitive ability and spelling predictors of written expression were examined between gender groups as well as across age and writing skill levels using quantile regression with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children--Second Edition and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement--Second Edition conormed standardization sample data (N = 2,117). Quantile regression is an analytic tool that allows for examination of predictors at different levels of the achievement distribution. Spelling predicted differing levels of writing competency for both genders. For girls, retrieval fluency and crystallized ability predicted lower and higher levels of writing competency, respectively. From a bifactor model interpretation, general intelligence was the largest and most consistent predictor of writing competency. Using a higher order model interpretation, learning efficiency predicted lower to average writing competency for girls, whereas for boys, visual processing predicted all levels of writing competency, and retrieval fluency predicted average to higher levels of writing competency. Although results are preliminary, researchers and practitioners are encouraged to consider that predictors of writing competency may differ markedly in strength across the continuum of writing achievement.

Self-monitoring interventions are well supported within the empirical literature as improving classroom engagement for students with disabilities. However, studies implementing self-monitoring interventions in high school settings are rarely conducted despite their potential to improve student academic and behavioral outcomes. In an investigation of an unobtrusive, self-monitoring application loaded on a handheld device, classroom engagement and perceived academic benefits were assessed in a withdrawal design for three high school students with different disabilities (specific learning disability, autism, and intellectual disability) in varied instructional arrangements. Direct observation data supported the intervention as effective in improving classroom engagement for all three students during intervention and maintenance phases.

Technological innovations offer promise for improving intervention implementation in secondary, inclusive classrooms. A withdrawal design was employed with two high-school students in order to assess the effectiveness of a technologically delivered, self-monitoring intervention in improving on-task behavior in a science classroom. Two students ages 14 and 15 with diagnoses of specific learning disability (Student 1) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Student 2) were selected by case manager referral due to difficulties with on-task behavior despite long-term administration of psychostimulant medication. After baseline data were collected, both students were trained in the use of a self-monitoring application (I-Connect) delivered via a handheld tablet. On-task prompts were delivered at 5-min intervals in an ABAB withdrawal design. The intervention resulted in positive, stable improvements in the primary dependent variable of on-task behavior for both students and less clear improvement in the generalization variable of disruptive behavior.

Behavior rating scales are indirect measures of emotional and social functioning used for assessment purposes. Rater bias is systematic error that may compromise the validity of behavior rating scale scores. Teacher bias in ratings of behavior has been investigated in multiple studies, but not yet assessed in a research synthesis that focuses on the role of ethnicity and culture. Teacher bias in ratings of student behavior was investigated through a comprehensive literature review that only included studies with a defensible criterion of true behavior against which to compare rating scores. A final total of 13 studies of teacher bias suggested mixed evidence for bias due to student ethnicity and strong evidence of bias due to teacher culture, particularly when positive stereotypes were violated. Limitations and future directions of research are discussed.

Approximately one-quarter of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere each year is absorbed by the global oceans, causing measurable declines in surface ocean pH, carbonate ion concentration ([C[O.sub.3.sup.2-]), [...]

Finding appropriate instructional settings in science for students with disabilities is challenging, and the range of services or placements used is currently unknown. This study identifies administrative structures, instructional settings, and special/general education teacher roles in teaching science to students with disabilities. A phone survey was conducted with special education coordinators of fifth graders in 137 districts in Texas. Survey data indicated that while nearly all districts reported special education settings for the instruction of science for students with disabilities, some districts provided only general education settings. Theoretical and practical implications for teacher preparation are discussed.

Because schools are held accountable for the academic performance of all students, it is important to focus on academics and the need for effective teaching practices. Adequate yearly progress, a method of accountability that is part of the No Child Left Behind Act (2001), profoundly affects the education of students who have emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). These students, who typically and consistently perform below grade level, are, or soon will be, tested on grade level across content-area courses. The authors conducted a review of academic interventions for students with EBD to broaden the impact of research by developing a list of instructional interventions that researchers have demonstrated to be effective in improving academic performance of students with EBD. (Contains 1 table.)

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) seeks to address the inequality in schools and to correct achievement disparities prevalent in education, but little is known of NCLB's effect on students in special education. This study assesses the impact of NCLB on special education by asking educators, administrators, and staff who serve students in special education about their perceptions of the impact of NCLB for students with disabilities. Survey responses were received from 248 respondents across the state of Texas. Findings include positive perceptions of changes related to accountability, teacher qualifications, and evidence-based practices; negative perceptions related to assessment; and perceptions of no changes in relationships and communication with parents or freedom for states and communities. (Contains 7 tables.)

Many students with autism engage in a variety of complex stereotypic behaviors, impacting task completion and interfering with social opportunities. Self-monitoring is an intervention with empirical support for individuals with ASD to increase behavioral repertoires and decrease behaviors that are incompatible with successful outcomes. However, there is limited evidence for its utility for decreasing stereotypy, particularly for adolescents in school settings. This study evaluated the functional relationship between I-Connect, a technology-delivered self-monitoring program, and decreases in the level of stereotypy for two students with ASD in the school setting utilizing a withdrawal design with an embedded multiple baseline across participants. Both students demonstrated a marked decrease in stereotypy with the introduction of the self-monitoring application. Results and implications for practice and future research will be discussed., Author(s): Stephen A. Crutchfield[sup.1] , Rose A. Mason[sup.1] , Angela Chambers[sup.2] , Howard P. Wills[sup.1] , Benjamin A. Mason[sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) Juniper Gardens Children's Project, University of Kansas, 444 [...]