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This study focuses on the effects of surface roughness on the fatigue strength of Ti-6Al-4V alloy manufactured by additive manufacturing (AM); electron beam melting (EBM) and direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) methods. The hot isostatic pressing (HIP) was applied to some series of polished specimens and as-built specimens to eliminate internal defects. Fatigue limit was evaluated by rotating bending fatigue tests. Although HIP increased the fatigue limits slightly, the fatigue limits of as-built specimens with HIP were only about 30% of the ideal fatigue limit expected from the Vickers hardness. On the other hand, the polished specimens with HIP had the fatigue limit close to the ideal upper bound. The fatigue crack was initiated at multiple sites on the surface in as-built specimens. Thus, surface roughness has crucial influence on fatigue strength of AM component. The surface morphology of as-build specimen is three-dimensionally complex. The evaluation of equivalent defect size for surface roughness was attempt by √area parameter model assuming the surface roughness is a small defect. The estimated defect size was over the applicable range of the √area parameter model, suggesting that the surface roughness of as-built specimen should be considered as long crack.

Additive manufacturing (AM) is expected to be a promising new manufacturing process for components having complex geometry. However, the disadvantage or challenge of AM is the presence of defects and surface roughness which are inevitably produced by the manufacturing process. Without strict and reliable quality control of components regarding defects and surface roughness, we cannot positively admire the advantages of AM as the new technology. In this paper, the method of quantitative evaluation of defects with complicated shapes and configurations, is explained from the viewpoint of small 3D cracks. First of all, the ideal fatigue strength (goal) to be attained by AM is discussed. Use of Fatigue-Grades from 5 (ideal strength) to 1 (lowest grade) is proposed for mutual comparison of fatigue performance of AM materials. The factors which decrease fatigue strength and degrade tensile properties are quantitatively analyzed. It is verified that the fatigue limit of AM materials is determined by the presence of nonpropagating crack emanating from defects. The reasons are made clear for fatigue fracture from surface defects even by tension-compression fatigue test as due to the difference of population of defects and increase in stress intensity factor for surface crack compared to internal cracks. Practical guides will be presented for the fatigue design and development of high quality AM materials, based on the combination of the 3D defect analysis, the statistics of extremes on defects, and the √area parameter model. It is shown that fatigue notch effect in AM materials is influenced by probability of presence of defects at notch root.

The crack-healing behavior of SiN/SiC nanolaminated thin films in a high-temperature environment was investigated. Laminated films with a thickness of 1 μm were fabricated on a silicon substrate by ion-beam-assisted deposition. The number of layers was fixed to four, and the bilayer ratio of SiN to SiC was set to either 1 or 3. Cracked samples were heated in an air atmosphere at 600–1200 °C. In the case of the SiN/SiC nanolaminated film, the crack was perfectly filled with the oxide by heating at 1000 °C, whereas the crack of the SiN film was not healed. Moreover, the filled crack length of the SiN/SiC laminated film with a bilayer ratio of 1 was longer than that of the same type of film with a bilayer ratio of 3. These results suggest that inserting SiC layers in SiN films may confer crack-healing ability to SiN thin films. Moreover, the influence of heating on crack‐healing was investigated systematically. Crack‐healing was improved with increasing heating temperature and time.

The influence of functionally graded TiN coating on fretting fatigue behavior of titanium alloy was investigated. The coating was deposited using an ion beam assisted deposition technique. TiN film was fabricated by an electron beam evaporation of titanium and simultaneous nitrogen ion bombardment. An acceleration voltage of ion beam was set at 0.2 or 2.0 keV. The functionally graded layer was fabricated by varying the mixing ratio of nitrogen/argon ion beam. The mixed layer became thicker by an increase in acceleration voltage. The adhesive strength and wear resistance were improved with an increase in the acceleration voltage. Moreover, they were significantly improved by inserting the functionally graded layer. The fretting fatigue tests were conducted using a four-point bending fatigue testing machine. The fretting fatigue life of specimen coated with monolayer TiN film was longer than that of uncoated specimen. The TiN coating with functionally graded layer was the most effective to improve the fretting fatigue life.

In this paper, the influence of irreversible hydrogen on the fatigue crack growth in high-strength steel is discussed. The fatigue crack growth rate was accelerated by irreversible hydrogen, and the acceleration increased with a decrease in stress cycle frequency. However, the stress ratio did not influence the fatigue crack growth rate evaluated in terms of Δ K eff . The behavior of irreversible hydrogen under cyclic loading was visualized by a hydrogen microprint technique. This proved that irreversible hydrogen desorbed out from the trap site under cyclic loading. The mechanical condition for irreversible hydrogen desorption was investigated by stress analysis and EPMA analysis.

The fatigue tests were conducted for cold-drawn eutectoid steels having different activation energies and microstructures to investigate the mechanism of fatigue strength degradation by irreversible hydrogen. The fatigue strength of a sample with low activation energy was decreased by irreversible hydrogen, whereas the fatigue strength of a sample with high activation energy was not. When the activation energy for irreversible hydrogen becomes small, the desorption of irreversible hydrogen from its trap site is easily induced by cyclic loading, which results in a decrease in fatigue strength. When a sample having high activation energy was annealed at 473 K, the fatigue strength was decreased by irreversible hydrogen although the activation energy barely changed. This is because the precipitation of fine carbides due to annealing causes higher sensitivity to hydrogen embrittlement. High sensitivity to hydrogen embrittlement was concluded to induce the fatigue strength degradation by irreversible hydrogen. Therefore, the degradation of fatigue strength by irreversible hydrogen depends on the activation energy and sensitivity to hydrogen embrittlement.

Fatigue tests were conducted for cold-drawn eutectoid steels having different activation energies for irreversible hydrogen trap sites and sensitivities to hydrogen embrittlement; the purpose was to investigate the mechanism of fatigue strength degradation by irreversible hydrogen. The fatigue strength of a sample with low activation energy was decreased by irreversible hydrogen in the material, whereas the fatigue strength of a sample with high activation energy was not. When the activation energies for irreversible hydrogen were almost equal, a higher sensitivity to hydrogen embrittlement induced fatigue strength degradation by irreversible hydrogen. Therefore, fatigue strength degradation by irreversible hydrogen depends on the activation energy for irreversible hydrogen trap sites and sensitivity to hydrogen embrittlement.

Fatigue tests have been conducted to investigate the influence of irreversible hydrogen and its activation energy for hydrogen desorption from trap site on the fatigue strength for cold-drawn high strength steels with different activation energy, but having the same chemical composition. Specimens were cathodically hydrogen charged, and internal hydrogen states were changed as follows : (a) non-charged sample and (b) the one that contained only irreversible hydrogen. Since the fatigue crack was initiated at internal inclusion or microstructural inhomogeneity, the fatigue strength was discussed based on the stress intensity factor calculated from stress and defect size. In the case of the sample with higher activation energy, 71.4 kJ/mol, irreversible hydrogen had no influence on the fatigue strength. In this case, the fracture surfaces of the sample with and without irreversible hydrogen were the same. However, for the sample with lower activation energy, 60.3 kJ/ mol, the fatigue strength of the specimen having only irreversible hydrogen decreased compared with non-charged specimens. The fracture surface of the sample with irreversible hydrogen was brittle compared with that of non-charged sample. This indicates that the influence of irreversible hydrogen on the fatigue strength tends to become small with increasing activation energy for irreversible hydrogen desorption.

Slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) tests and fatigue tests were conducted to investigate the influence of irreversible hydrogen on the quasi static SSRT strength and fatigue strength for cold drawn eutectoid steels which were cathodically hydrogen charged. Internal hydrogen states were changed as follows: (a) virgin sample, (b) the sample that contained both diffusible and irreversible hydrogen, and (c) the one that contained only irreversible hydrogen. The SSRT strength properties of only irreversible hydrogen contained sample were the same as that of virgin sample, whereas those of the sample having both diffusible and irreversible hydrogen were smaller than the others. This indicates that only the diffusible hydrogen caused hydrogen embrittlement under the quasi-static loading. Contrary to this, the fatigue strength of the sample having both diffusible and irreversible hydrogen was lower than that of virgin sample. However, the influence of irreversible hydrogen on the fatigue strength was unclear since S-N curves had a large scatter. This is due to the fact that the fatigue crack was initiated at internal inclusion. Therefore, the fatigue strength was discussed based on the stress intensity factor, ΔKinc, calculated from stress and inclusion size. ΔKinc giving the same Nf decreased in the order of virgin sample, irreversible hydrogen charged sample and the sample having diffusible and irreversible hydrogen, indicating irreversible hydrogen caused the fatigue strength degradation.

This paper discusses the influence of irreversible hydrogen on the fatigue crack initiation life in cold drawn eutectoid steel. Fatigue tests were conducted for the sample having an artificial small notch fabricated by focused ion beam (FIB) system. Samples were cathodically hydrogen charged, and internal hydrogen states were changed as follows : (a) virgin sample and (b) the one that contained only irreversible hydrogen. In the notched sample, the fatigue strength was lower than that of smooth sample. The slope of the S-N curves became steeper and the influence of irreversible hydrogen was not observed. This is because the fatigue life was almost dominated by fatigue crack propagation life, resulted from a crack being easily initiated at a notch root owing to high stress concentration. The surface fatigue crack propagation rate, obtained by using fatigue life data for notched sample, was not affected by irreversible hydrogen. Using the obtained fatigue crack propagation rate and the rate in high vacuum corresponding to the propagation in a fish-eye region, the crack initiation life from an internal inclusion for smooth sample was estimated, and it shows that the irreversible hydrogen reduced the fatigue crack initiation life, compared with those of a virgin sample. This is a reason why the fatigue strength of a smooth sample was decreased by irreversible hydrogen.

Slow strain rate tests (SSRT) and fatigue tests were conducted to investigate the influence of internal hydrogen state on the quasi static SSRT strength and fatigue strength for cold drawn eutectoid steel specimens which were cathodically hydrogen charged. Internal hydrogen states were changed as follows : (a) virgin sample or non-charged one, (b) the sample that contained both diffusive and non-diffusive hydrogen, and (c) the one that contained only non-diffusive hydrogen. The SSRT strength and the fracture displacement of only non-diffusive hydrogen charged samples were the same as that of non-charged sample, whereas those of the sample having both diffusive and non-diffusive hydrogen were smaller than the others. This indicates that only the diffusive hydrogen caused hydrogen embrittlement under the quasi-static loading condition. The fatigue strength of the specimen having both diffusive and non-diffusive hydrogen decreased compared with non-charged specimens. However, S-N curves had a large scatter and the influence of non-diffusive hydrogen on the fatigue strength was unclear ; because the fatigue crack was initiated at internal inclusion. Therefore, the fatigue strength was discussed based upon the stress intensity factor, ΔKinc, calculated from stress and inclusion size. ΔKinc giving the same Nf decreased in the order of the non-charged specimen, only non-diffusive hydrogen charged specimen and the specimen having diffusive and non-diffusive hydrogen, indicating non-diffusive hydrogen caused a decrease in fatigue strength.

Although the bronze featherback Notopterus notopterus is an important fish in South-East Asia, the population structure has not been investigated. In this study, genetic diversity and population structure of the bronze featherback were examined using nucleotide sequence analysis of the mitochondrial DNA control region for 332 fish collected from Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River in Cambodia. The average nucleotide diversity (π) of all samples was 0.033, and the Mekong River samples had higher nucleotide diversity (0.034) than Tonle Sap Lake samples (0.028). The nucleotide diversity between the lake and river samples varied from 0.029 to 0.037. The genetic differentiation between the river and lake populations was also supported by the pairwise F-statistic values and hierarchical analysis of molecular variance, indicating that the Tonle Sap Lake population is genetically isolated from the population in main stream of the Mekong River.

Uncertainties surrounding the evolutionary origin of the epipelagic fish family Scombridae (tunas and mackerels) are symptomatic of the difficulties in resolving suprafamilial relationships within Percomorpha, a hyperdiverse teleost radiation that contains approximately 17,000 species placed in 13 ill-defined orders and 269 families. Here we find that scombrids share a common ancestry with 14 families based on (i) bioinformatic analyses using partial mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences from all percomorphs deposited in GenBank (10,733 sequences) and (ii) subsequent mitogenomic analysis based on 57 species from those targeted 15 families and 67 outgroup taxa. Morphological heterogeneity among these 15 families is so extraordinary that they have been placed in six different perciform suborders. However, members of the 15 families are either coastal or oceanic pelagic in their ecology with diverse modes of life, suggesting that they represent a previously undetected adaptive radiation in the pelagic realm. Time-calibrated phylogenies imply that scombrids originated from a deep-ocean ancestor and began to radiate after the end-Cretaceous when large predatory epipelagic fishes were selective victims of the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction. We name this clade of open-ocean fishes containing Scombridae “Pelagia” in reference to the common habitat preference that links the 15 families.

Background Freshwater harbors approximately 12,000 fish species accounting for 43% of the diversity of all modern fish. A single ancestral lineage evolved into about two-thirds of this enormous biodiversity (≈ 7900 spp.) and is currently distributed throughout the world's continents except Antarctica. Despite such remarkable species diversity and ubiquity, the evolutionary history of this major freshwater fish clade, Otophysi, remains largely unexplored. To gain insight into the history of otophysan diversification, we constructed a timetree based on whole mitogenome sequences across 110 species representing 55 of the 64 families. Results Partitioned maximum likelihood analysis based on unambiguously aligned sequences (9923 bp) confidently recovered the monophyly of Otophysi and the two constituent subgroups (Cypriniformes and Characiphysi). The latter clade comprised three orders (Gymnotiformes, Characiformes, Siluriformes), and Gymnotiformes was sister to the latter two groups. One of the two suborders in Characiformes (Characoidei) was more closely related to Siluriformes than to its own suborder (Citharinoidei), rendering the characiforms paraphyletic. Although this novel relationship did not receive strong statistical support, it was supported by analyzing independent nuclear markers. A relaxed molecular clock Bayesian analysis of the divergence times and reconstruction of ancestral habitats on the timetree suggest a Pangaean origin and Mesozoic radiation of otophysans. Conclusions The present timetree demonstrates that survival of the ancestral lineages through the two consecutive mass extinctions on Pangaea, and subsequent radiations during the Jurassic through early Cretaceous shaped the modern familial diversity of otophysans. This evolutionary scenario is consistent with recent arguments based on biogeographic inferences and molecular divergence time estimates. No fossil otophysan, however, has been recorded before the Albian, the early Cretaceous 100-112 Ma, creating an over 100 million year time span without fossil evidence. This formidable ghost range partially reflects a genuine difference between the estimated ages of stem group origin (molecular divergence time) and crown group morphological diversification (fossil divergence time); the ghost range, however, would be filled with discoveries of older fossils that can be used as more reasonable time constraints as well as with developments of more realistic models that capture the rates of molecular sequences accurately.