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A biomembrane's role is to be a barrier for interior cytosol from an exterior environment to execute the cell's normal biological functions. However, a water-soluble peptide called cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) has been known for its ability to directly penetrate through the biomembranes into cells (cytolysis) without perturbating cell viability and expected to be a promising drug delivery vector. Examples of CPP include peptides with multiple arginine units with strong cationic properties, which is the key to cytolysis. Here we show the conclusive evidence to support the mechanism of CPP’s cytolysis and way to control it. The mechanism we proposed is attributed to biomembrane’s physicochemical nature as lamellar liquid crystal (Lα). Cytolysis occurs as the temporal and local dynamic phase transitions from Lα to an undulated lamellar with pores called Mesh1. We have shown this phase transfer of Lα composed of dioleoyl-phosphatidylcholine (DOPC) with water by adding oligo-arginine (Rx) as CPP at the equilibrium. Using giant unilamellar vesicle composed of DOPC as a single cell model, we could control the level of cytolysis of CPP (FITC-R8) by changing the curvature of the membrane through osmotic pressure modulation. The cytolysis of CPP utilizes biomembrane's inherent topological and functional flexibility corresponding to the stimuli.

New ester functionalized branched anionic surfactant—sodium citronellyl sulfoacetate (SCSA) is developed from naturally occurring acyclic monoterpene citronellol. This new surfactant is investigated for its self-aggregation, detergent, and biodegradation properties. Surface properties of the SCSA are determined by surface tension and conductivity method. Hydrodynamic radius of the micelles formed by the new surfactant is determined by dynamic light scattering technique. Detergency and foaming properties of the new surfactant are determined by Tergotometer and Ross-Miles method respectively. Further, the biodegradation property of the SCSA was determined by the BOD method. The experimental evaluation result establishes SCSA to be a good sustainable alternative to petrochemical derived surfactants. The new surfactant demonstrated good surface activity along with excellent detergent and biodegradation properties.

Surfactants are active or essential ingredient of several industrial and consumer formulations. These amphiphilic organic molecules demonstrate unique ability to adsorb at the interface and self-aggregate or self-assemble into different phases in aqueous or nonaqueous solution. In recent years, environmental concerns coupled with increased consumer awareness have guided substantial growth of environmentally benign surfactant molecules often termed as ‘green surfactants’, oleochemical-based surfactants', ‘renewable surfactants’ ‘biosurfactants’, ‘natural surfactants’, and so on. These groups of new generation of eco-friendly surfactant molecules often directly or indirectly derived/developed from renewable building blocks can be broadly termed as ‘sustainable surfactants’ which are increasingly becoming popular in many application areas. The ever-increasing demand of surfactants in several application areas necessitates development of many new structural analogs of these molecules by sustainable approach. This review summarizes recent progress in the area of sustainable surfactants, their potential impact, and future perspective.

We studied the phase behavior of a ternary polymerizable gemini surfactant (PC11-6-11)/1-undecanol/water system and stabilized these liquid crystalline structures through the polymerization of surfactants. The addition of 1-undecanol to a PC11-6-11/water system formed bicontinuous cubic (V1) and reversed hexagonal (H2) liquid crystal phases in addition to hexagonal (H1) and lamellar (Lα) phases, which were also formed using the binary system of PC11-6-11/water. These new phases were formed because the fatty alcohol penetrated the palisade layer of the PC11-6-11 micelles. The polymerization of PC11-6-11 with a thermal initiator successfully preserved the Lα and H2 phases. Layered or honeycomb structures of these liquid crystals were clearly observed by transmission electron microscopy. The nanomaterials have potential applications as membranes for nano- or microfiltration and catalyst support materials.

The aim of the study was to determine the feasibility of the Vitellaria paradoxa nutshell as a new medicinal resource for treating diabetes. A total of forty-one compounds were identified by HPLC-DAD-Q-TOF-MS and phytochemical methods in V. paradoxa nutshell methanol extract. Based on HPLC fingerprints, four characteristic constituents were quantified and the origin of twenty-eight V. paradoxa nutshells from seven sub-Saharan countries was compared, which were classified into three groups with chemometric method. Twenty-eight samples contained high total phenolic content, and exhibited moderate-higher antioxidant activity and strong α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Furthermore, all fractions and isolated compounds were evaluated for their antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities, and α-glucosidase inhibitory action mechanism of four characteristic constituents including protocatechuic acid, 3, 5, 7-trihydroxycoumarin, (2R, 3R)-(+)-taxifolin and quercetin was investigated via molecular docking method, which were all stabilized by hydrogen bonds with α-glucosidase. The study provided an effective approach to waste utilization of V. paradoxa nutshell, which would help to resolve waste environmental pollution and provide a basis for developing potential herbal resource for treating diabetes.

Liposomes, entrapped with Job's Tears fractions, were prepared by the supercritical carbon dioxide fluid (scCO₂) technique with and without sonication. Physical characteristics, which were the particle size, zeta potential, vesicular morphology, microviscosity and bioactivities including anti-proliferative, apoptotic and antioxidative activities of the S1L-S5L liposomal systems, were investigated. The potent anti-proliferative activity with the IC50 value of 4.44±2.31 ug/ml in a colon cancer cell (HT-29) was observed in the S5L. S5L also showed the apoptotic activity of 4.45±0.92% in an HT-29 cell. For antioxidative activities, the S3L showed the highest free radical scavenging activity and lipid peroxidation inhibition, whereas the S4L gave the highest metal chelating activity. This study has demonstrated the potent anti-proliferative activity on an HT-29 cell of the S5L liposomal formulation prepared by the scCO₂ technique which can be further developed towards a novel anticancer drug.

Ester based anionic surfactant—sodium lauryl sulfoacetate (SLSA)—is one of the most important surface-active ingredients in several personal care products however no scientific report is available regarding its lyotropic and thermotropic phase behavior in water. In the present study, SLSA and its congener sodium myristyl sulfoacetate (SMSA) are investigated for their self-aggregation properties in aqueous system. Phase transition temperature of these surfactant–water mixtures is determined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Their lyotropic and thermotropic phase behavior in water are investigated by polarized optical microscopy (POM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS). These surfactants predominantly exist as different types of self-assembled lamellar phases along with or without solid crystalline phases in aqueous system.

We synthesized amino acid-type photo-cleavable surfactants composed of coumarin and glycine precursors and studied the photo-switchable interfacial properties, release of active ingredients, and colloidal stability of silica particles. Photo-cleavage of the surfactants reduced their interfacial activities at the squalane/water interface. Silica particles bearing aminoethylene groups on the surface were well dispersed in an aqueous solution of the photo-cleavable anionic surfactant. The surfactants form a bilayer on the silica particles by ion complexation of the amine and carboxylic groups, and the negative charge originating from the surfactant results in electrostatic repulsion, which contributes to the dispersion stability. Ultraviolet light irradiation caused flocculation of the silica particles and the release of the coumarin derivative and glycine into the medium through photo-induced isomerization and cyclization. The new photo-cleavable surfactant systems represented controlled multiple interfacial and colloidal properties upon photoirradiation.

The interaction of copolymer L61 i.e., (EO)2(PO)32(EO)2 (where EO and PO are ethylene and propylene oxides, respectively) with surfactant SDS (sodium dodecylsulfate) in relation to their self-aggregation, dynamics and microstructures has been physicochemically studied in detail employing the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR), Small-Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS), and Freeze-Fracture Transmission Electron Microscopy (FF-TEM) methods. The NMR self-diffusion study indicated a synergistic interaction between SDS and L61 forming L61–SDS mixed complex aggregates, and deuterium (2H) NMR pointed out the nonspherical nature of these aggregates with increasing [L61]. EPR spectral analysis of the motional parameters of 5-doxyl steraric acid (5-DSA) as a spin probe provided information on the microviscosity of the local environment of the L61–SDS complex aggregates. SANS probed the geometrical aspects of the SDS–L61 assemblies as a function of both [L61] and [SDS]. Progressive evolution of the mixed-aggregate geometries from globular to prolate ellipsoids with axial ratios ranging from 2 to 10 with increasing [L61] was found. Such morphological changes were further corroborated with the results of 2H NMR and FF-TEM measurements. The strategy of the measurements, and data analysis for a concerted conclusion have been presented.

Plants of the Meliaceae family have been well documented for their ability to metabolize structurally diverse and biologically significant limonoids. To search for potential bioactive compounds from Meliaceae plants, we have investigated the limonoids and other secondary metabolites of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (AI; neem tree) and Azadirachta indica A. Juss. var. siamensis Valeton (AIS; Siamese neem tree), and have isolated and characterized 81 limonoids, 1 diterpenoid, and 11 flavonoids. These compounds have been demonstrated potent bioactivities, including melanogenesis-inhibitory activity in B16 melanoma cells, inhibitory potential against 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced Epstein–Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) activation, a primary screening for inhibitors of tumor promotion, cytotoxic activities against human cancer cell lines, inhibitory activity against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in RAW 264.7 cells, a primary screening for antiinflammatory agents, and antiinflammatory activity against TPA-induced inflammation in mice. In this review chapter, isolation, characterization, and bioactivities, including melanogenesis-inhibitory activity, cancer chemopreventive property, cytotoxic activity, and antiinflammatory activity, of limonoids and other secondary metabolites of AI and AIS, which are mostly the results of our investigations are presented.

A specific series of peptides, called a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP), is known to be free to directly permeate through cell membranes into the cytosol (cytolysis), hence, this CPP would be a potent carrier for a drug delivery system (DDS). Previously, we proposed the mechanism of cytolysis as a temporal and local phase transfer of membrane lipid caused by positive membrane curvature generation. Moreover, we showed how to control the CPP cytolysis. Here, we investigate the phospholipid vesicle&rsquo, s size effect on CPP cytolysis because this is the most straightforward way to control membrane curvature. Contrary to our expectation, we found that the smaller the vesicle diameter (meaning a higher membrane curvature), the more cytolysis was suppressed. Such controversial findings led us to seek the reason for the unexpected results, and we ended up finding out that the mobility of membrane lipids as a liquid crystal is the key to cytolysis. As a result, we could explain the cause of cytolysis suppression by reducing the vesicle size (because of the restriction of lipid mobility), osmotic pressure reduction to enhance positive curvature generation works as long as the membrane is mobile enough to modulate the local structure. Taking all the revealed vital factors and their effects as a tool, we will further explore how to control CPP cytolysis for developing a DDS system combined with appropriate cargo selection to be tagged with CPPs.

Cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) can directly penetrate the cytosol (cytolysis) and is expected to be a potent vector for a drug delivery system (DDS). Although there is general agreement that CPP cytolysis is related to dynamic membrane deformation, a distinctive process has yet to be established. Here, we report the key process and factors controlling CPP cytolysis. To elucidate the task, we have introduced trypsin digestion of adsorbed CPP onto giant unilamellar vesicle (GUV) to quantify the adsorption and internalization (cytolysis) separately. Also, the time-course analysis was introduced for the geometric calculation of adsorption and internalization amount per lipid molecule consisting of GUV. As a result, we found that adsorption and internalization assumed to occur successively by CPP molecule come into contact with membrane lipid. Adsorption is quick to saturate within 10 min, while cytolysis of each CPP on the membrane follows successively. After adsorption is saturated, cytolysis proceeds further linearly by time with a different rate constant that is dependent on the osmotic pressure. We also found that temperature and lipid composition influence cytolysis by modulating lipid mobility. The electrolyte in the outer media is also affected as a chemical mediator to control CPP cytolysis by following the Hoffmeister effect for membrane hydration. These results confirmed the mechanism of cytolysis as temporal and local phase transfer of membrane lipid from L&alpha, to Mesh1, which has punctured bilayer morphologies.

To evaluate the anti-ageing activity of cream containing the methanolic purple glutinous rice extract loaded in niosomes.The in vitro biological activities of the purple glutinous rice extracted by methanol maceration were determined. The extract loaded in niosomes and the cream containing the niosomes were developed. The in vivo anti-ageing activity in 20 human volunteers including skin hydration, pigmentation, roughness and elasticity after daily application for 28 days compared to at initial was evaluated by Corneometer, Mexameter, Visiometer and Cutometer, respectively.The purple glutinous rice extract showed free radical scavenging (SCThe cream containing niosomes loaded with the 1%w/v methanolic purple glutinous rice extract gave not only the suitable in vitro antioxidant activity and physical stability of the active anthocyanin, but also the superior in vivo anti-ageing activity on human skin compared to the cream base and before application which can be further developed as a novel anti-ageing cosmeceutical product.Evaluer l'activité anti-âge d'une crème contenant de l'extrait de riz gluant violet méthanolique chargé en niosomes. MÉTHODES: Les activités biologiques in vitro de l'extrait du riz gluant violet par macération au méthanol ont été déterminées. L'extrait chargé en niosomes et la crème contenant les niosomes ont été développés. L'activité anti-âge in vivo sur 20 volontaires humains, y compris de l'hydratation de la peau, la pigmentation, la rugosité et l'élasticité après une application quotidienne pendant 28 jours a été évaluée par comparaison avec T0 par cornéomètre, mexamètre, visiomètre et cutomètre, respectivement. RÉSULTATS: L'extrait de riz gluant violet a montré des valeurs de piégeage des radicaux libres (SC50), d'inhibition de la peroxydation lipidique (IPC50), de chélation des ions métalliques (CC50) et d'inhibition de la tyrosinase (IC50) à 32,31 ± 1,28, 57,40 ± 2,12, 85,05 ± 5,43 et 43,89 ± 2,14 mg / ml qui étaient 0,00031, 0,011, 0,0078 et 0,0016 fois des standards respectivement (0,01 ± 0,00, 0,62 ± 0,14, 0,66 ± 0,05 et 0,07 ± 0,01). L'extrait de riz gluant violet contenait 0.35 pg d'anthocyanine / 1 mg de l'extrait déterminé par HPLC. Après avoir été chargé dans les niosomes, la solubilité de l'extrait a non seulement été augmentée dans divers solvants, mais aussi la stabilité chimique dans différents environnements (base faible, agent réducteur et sel d'acide) a été améliorée. La formulation de crème contenant des niosomes chargés avec 1% p / v de l'extrait de riz gluant violet a indiqué les pourcentages d'anthocyanine restants après 6 cycles de test de chauffage et de refroidissement à 52,28% de la valeur initiale. Pour les activités anti-âge in vivo, la crème contenant des niosomes chargés de l'extrait a donné une réduction significative de l'indice de mélanine et de la rugosité cutanée de -14,05 et -9,95% de la valeur initiale, respectivement. Les pourcentages de variation de l’hydratation accrue de la peau, de l’extension élastique de la peau et de la récupération de l’élasticité de la peau lors de l’application sur la peau de volontaires humains avec cette formulation étaient respectivement de +48,73, -24,51 et + 35,98%.La crème contenant des niosomes chargée avec l'extrait de riz gluant violet méthanolique à 1% p / v a donné non seulement une activité antioxydante in vitro appropriée et une stabilité physique de l'anthocyanine active, mais également une activité anti-vieillissement in vivo supérieure sur la peau humaine par rapport à la base de la crème et avant application, qui peut être développée en tant que nouveau produit cosméceutique anti-âge. Mots clés: riz gluant violet, niosomes, antioxydant, inhibition de la tyrosinase, efficacité anti-âge in vivo, produit cosméceutique.

Constituents of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa; Sapotaceae) kernels are commonly used as functional food and for skin care by indigenous peoples in Africa. Twenty-six MeOH extract samples of defatted shea kernels from seven sub-Saharan countries, i.e., Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, and Uganda, were investigated in this study. HPLC coupled to an evaporative light-scattering detector and LC-QTOF (time-of-flight)-MS revealed that the extracts contained sugars (25.6–80.2%) as the most predominant constituents, followed by oleanane-type triterpene glycosides (4.9–35.2%), accompanied by minor amounts of cucurbates (1.0–21.0%) and phenolic compounds (0.3–16.0%). Principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis classified the twenty-six samples into three groups. Upon evaluation of the melanogenesis-inhibitory activities of all samples in B16 melanoma cells induced by α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, it was found that samples S2, S3, and S21 were lower-risk melanogenesis inhibitors (39.4–42.5% melanin content, 78.6–91.6% cell viability) with a small activity-to-cytotoxicity ratio (0.18–0.94), and were superior to reference arbutin at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. These results suggest that the extracts of defatted shea kernels and their constituents can be regarded as skin-whitening agents.

Physicochemical studies on aqueous mixtures of ionic liquids (ILs) and reverse pluronics are limited. Self-aggregation dynamics and microstructure of a surface-active IL (SAIL), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium octylsulfate [C4mim] [C8OSO3], in the presence of a reverse pluronic, PO8EO22PO8 (known as 10R5), were studied using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) methods. Also, cryo-/freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy was employed to determine the microstructures of SAIL/10R5 mixtures. The ITC and NMR results revealed facilitation of SAIL aggregation in the presence of 10R5 forming mixed aggregates as well as free SAIL micelles. 2H spin relaxation rate data pointed out the onset of slow dynamics of the aqueous SAIL/10R5 mixture with an increase in either the former or the latter. Globular morphologies of the mixed species as well as their individual components were corroborated from the measurements. The preferential location of interaction of the SAIL with the 10R5 was identified from 13C NMR chemical shift findings to be in the interfacial region of the assembled SAIL. The formed species were mixed interacted aggregates but not mixed micelles that arise from mixed surfactants. The physicochemical information acquired herein would enrich the literature on the 10R5/SAIL mixed microheterogeneous systems having importance in the making of useful green drug carrier systems and templates for the synthesis of nanomaterials.

We studied the effect of counterion species of oleic acid-based gemini surfactants with carboxylate headgroups. Adsorption and self-aggregation properties were investigated by static surface tension, pyrene fluorescence, dynamic light scattering and phase diagram measurements. We found that, in the case of inorganic counterions (Li + , Na + , K + , and Cs + ), a decreased ion size leads to a decreased critical micelle concentration (cmc) as well as a decreased area per surfactant molecule adsorbed at the air/aqueous solution interface ( A cmc ). The smaller inorganic counterions (hard acid) can interact with the carboxylate headgroups (hard base), and hence reduce the head-to-head electrostatic repulsion. The smaller counterions also induced the lower phase transition concentration from an optically isotropic solution (L 1 ) phase to a hexagonal liquid crystal (H 1 ) phase. In the case of organic counterions (monoethanolamine (MEA) and diethanolamine (DEA)), the micellization behavior was predominantly affected by the hydrophobicity of the counterions, whereas the hydrated ion size was a key parameter determining the molecular packing at the air/solution interface. In addition, we found a structural transformation from larger aggregates to smaller ones (micelles) to occur for the organic counterion systems at dilute surfactant concentrations.

Three new cardiac glycosides strophanthidin-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-6-deoxy-β-D-allopyranoside (1), 5βH-16β-acetylkamaloside (2), and mansonin-19-carboxylic acid (3) along with seven known steroids including five cardiac glycosides were isolated from the methanol extracts of Streblus asper Lour. roots. The structures of these compounds were established by spectroscopic analyses. The cytotoxicities of crude extracts and all the isolated compounds were evaluated against four human cancer cell lines (HL60, A549, AZ521, and SKBR3). Furthermore, the selective index (SI) of each compound was measured by the ratio of cytotoxic effect on a normal cell line (WI38) to the cytotoxic effect on cancer cell line (A549). The results suggested that cardiac glycosides (2, 4, and 6–8) exhibited significant cytotoxicities with IC50 values from 0.01 to 3.77 μM as well as high selective index for WI38/A549 (SI 1.50–24.26), and they displayed superior selectivities when compared with the reference cisplatin (SI 1.09). Preliminary structure–activity relationships (SARs) were also discussed regarding the type of C-10 group in the cardiac glycosides being a crucial factor in determining the cytotoxic activities and regarding the sugar moieties having much less of an active role than the type of C-10 group. In addition, the melanogenesis-inhibitory abilities of these compounds were also evaluated. Cardiac glycosides (3 and 6–8) displayed moderate inhibition effects on melanogenesis with melanin content (MC) of 26.22–74.90% at a concentration of 100 μM, thus showing high cell viability (CV: 77.94–111.70%) compared with that of the reference arbutin (MC: 82.50% and CV: 107.60%). Furthermore, western blot analysis of melanogenesis-related proteins suggested that 3 could inhibit melanogenesis by suppressing the protein expressions of TRP-2 and tyrosinase.

Industrially relevant systems for household and personal-care products often involve a large number of components. Such multiple component formulations are indispensable and effective for functionalization of the products, but may simultaneously provide more complex structural features compared to those in ideal systems comprising a smaller number of highly pure substances. Using cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy, we have investigated effects of fragrance-incorporation into cationic vesicles on their bilayer structures and membrane-membrane interactions. Cationic vesicles were prepared from TEQ surfactant, whose major component was di(alkyl fatty ester) quaternary ammonium methosulfate, and fragrance components, l-menthol, linalool, and d-limonene, were infused into the vesicle membranes to model scent-releasing fabric softeners. The cryo-TEM images confirm formation of multilamellar vesicles (MLVs). Generalized indirect Fourier transformation (GIFT) analysis of the SAXS intensities based on the modified Caillé structure factor model reveals that incorporation of a more hydrophobic fragrance component leads to a more pronounced increase of the surface separation (water layer thickness). Furthermore, the fragrance-infused systems show longer-range order of the bilayer correlations and enhanced undulation fluctuation of the membranes than those in the TEQ alone system. The spin-label ESR results indicate different restricted molecular motions in the TEQ bilayers depending on the labeled position and their marked changes upon addition of the fragrance components, suggesting different mixing schemes and solubilization positions of the fragrance molecules in the TEQ bilayers. The present data have demonstrated how the infused fragrance molecules having different hydrophobicity and molecular architectures into the cationic vesicles affect the membrane structures and the intermembrane interactions, which may provide useful information for precisely controlling a fragrance-releasing property.

Organic solutes with low water-solubility are solubilized into surfactant aggregates formed at solid/aqueous solution interfaces by the process of adsolubilization. In this study, we have characterized the adsolubilization of 1-hexanol (C6OH) into hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (HTAB) aggregates adsorbed on a silica surface, by means of atomic force microscopy (AFM) and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) techniques. The adsolubilization reduces electrostatic head-to-head repulsion between HTAB molecules forming the surface aggregates, along with additional adsorption of HTAB molecules at the solid/aqueous solution interface. At an HTAB concentration above the critical micelle concentration (cmc), the adsolubilization led to (i) a greater magnitude of repulsive interactions in the AFM force-distance data, (ii) a morphological change of the surface aggregates from a spherical or partially wormlike assembly into a flat bilayer, and (iii) an increased energy dissipation, reflecting an increased elasticity of the adsorbed aggregates. The kinetics of the adsolubilization-induced structural change was also studied at an HTAB concentration below the cmc; the increased C6OH concentration resulted in increased initial responses in frequency and dissipation. It seems likely that the kinetics is primarily driven by the diffusion of HTAB and C6OH molecules toward the silica surface, and the molecular reorganization within the adsorbed aggregates may also contribute to the kinetics especially at a low C6OH concentration.

Renewable ester functionalized oleic and stearic acid based imidazolium surfactants were synthesized and characterized using spectroscopic techniques. The new surfactants were investigated for their self-aggregation properties and biodegradability in aqueous solution. These fatty acid based surfactants were able to self-aggregate into micelles at lower concentration compared to conventional surfactants and were found to be readily biodegradable. The surface properties and biodegradation rate of these new renewable surfactants depend on the nature of the hydrophobic tail. The oleic acid based surfactant containing a double bond in the hydrophobic oleyl tail demonstrated a greater capability to reduce the surface tension of an aqueous solution along with a greater ability to undergo biodegradation compared to the saturated hydrophobic stearyl tail containing a stearic acid based surfactant.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Ficus hispida L.f. (Moraceae) has long been used as a traditional medicine in India, China, Sri Lanka, Australia, and Myanmar in the treatment of diarrhea, ulcer, anemia, diabetes, inflammation, and cancer. Aim of the review This review provides a systematic comment on the botany, traditional uses, and phytochemical and pharmacological studies of F. hispida, with an aim to make critical update of the current knowledge and obtain opportunities for further therapeutic potential. Materials and methods The information was derived from scientific literature databases including PubMed, Baidu Scholar, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Science Direct. Additional information was gathered from books, Ph.D. and M.Sc. dissertations, and unpublished materials. Results and discussion F. hispida is used especially in Chinese and Indian traditional medical systems as a remedy for skin disorders, respiratory diseases, and urinary diseases. Wound healing, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, sedative, antidiarrheal, antiulcer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antineoplastic, and antidiabetic activities have been reported for crude extracts and isolated metabolites, but the methodologies in these studies often have inadequate design and low technical quality. More than 76 compounds have been isolated from F. hispida, including sesquiterpenoids and triterpenoids, flavonoids, coumarins, phenylpropionic acids, benzoic acid derivatives, alkaloids, steroids, other glycosides, and alkanes, but the method of bioassay-guided fractionation is seldom applied in the isolation from F. hispida. Conclusion F. hispida is used widely in traditional medicines and has multiple pharmacological effects that could support traditional uses. However, pharmacological studies should be viewed with caution because of the inappropriate experimental design. More in vitro and in vivo research is urgently needed to study the molecular mechanisms and assess the effective and safe dose of F. hispida.

Ōe Kenzaburō and Murakami Haruki are known for their persistent interests in various authors of world literature, especially those writing in English. From their early days, they read novels in English, a custom that helped them to distance themselves from traditional Japanese literature; they thus cultivated modes of writing free from the aesthetics and ways of thinking cherished by their predecessors. Several authors had great impacts on their literary views; in Ōe’s case it was William Blake, in Murakami’s F. Scott Fitzgerald. The styles of both Japanese authors were influenced by their encounters with the English language. The issue is not purely linguistic; alternative modes of writing inevitably bring about changes in narrative styles, moods, characterization, and even a fundamental sense of values that underlies the fictional world. Ōe and Murakami unmistakably played definitive roles in postwar Japanese literature. Their responses to the world that surrounded Japan after the war offer a way to understand the psyche of the Japanese people in the 20th and 21st centuries. American influence can be observed in many other novelists writing after the 1980s, too, including Yasuo Tanaka’s Somewhat Crystal (Nantonaku Kurisutaru), together with Murakami Ryu and Yamada Eimi. The novel is often seen to mark the onset of postmodernism in Japan, as it presents an extreme case of consumption-oriented life, which, combined with fascination with imported cultural icons, typifies Japanese reception of the West, particularly America. Significantly, Tanaka’s novel was endorsed by the conservative critic Jun Etō and led to the nullification of the border between traditional and popular literatures.

Contact angle measurement is used for the evaluation of the wettability of liquids to solid surfaces as a combination. Liquids with larger contact angles correspond to less wetting, while smaller means more wetting to solids. For example, the contact angle of water and clean glass surface is close to zero, but in contrast, it reaches up to about 110° for water- and paraffin-treated glass surface. This chapter deals with the measurement of contact angles to evaluate the wettability of water on solid surfaces.

Measurement of zeta potential is not applicable to systems with entangled particles, non-charged particles, and concentrated solutions where the interfacial electrical double layers are depressed. However, dispersibility of charged colloidal particles in aqueous solution can be evaluated by ζ potential. Therefore, this chapter deals with the basics of electrical interface phenomenon and its relationship between surface electric potential, zeta potential, and surface charge density.

In most cases, water for physiochemical experiments is used after percolating and boiling to remove impurities such as particles, organics, colloids, microorganisms, etc. To remove bacteria from ultrapure water is arguably the most difficult process. For example, gram-negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas putida are found in purified water with a TOC (total organic carbon) of 60 ppb, while Pseudomonas stutzeri is found in further purified water with a TOC of 5 ppb.

This chapter deals with the basics of surface chemistry such as the difference between interface and surface, the relationship between interface and colloid, various types of colloid dispersions with gas-liquid interface, gas-solid interface, liquid-liquid interface, liquid-solid interface, and solid-solid interface, reactions at interfaces, and the difference between surfaces and internal areas. Fundamentals of surfactants (surface-active agents) based on their classification, solubility, Krafft point, cloud point, salting out, and salting in are discussed in brief.

Surfactants (surface-active agent) are defined as substances capable of changing the surface or interfacial properties significantly. Addition of small amounts of surfactants into water decreases surface tension significantly. Namely, it is not called a surfactant if it does not decrease the surface tension of aqueous solutions. This chapter introduces the physical definition of surface tension and methods to measure it, such as Wilhelmy plate method and Du Nouy method. The most popular methods and essential points for the measurement are explained. Surface tension measurements enable to determine the critical micelle concentration (cmc) of the surfactant, calculate the amount of surfactant adsorbed on the surface, and to determine the miscibility of two surfactants in mixed micellar solutions.

Solubilization resembles emulsification in regard to how they are caused by surfactant self-assemblies. Here, the distinct difference is that solubilization is a state under thermodynamic equilibrium and thus is independent to the process applied, but on the other hand, emulsion is an unstable non-equilibrium state highly dependent on the preparation process. Systems called microemulsions require special attention because despite of the name, they are states in solubilization where swelled micelles are dispersed. The term solubilization is generally used for isotropic single-phase micelle solutions higher than the Kraft temperature, though there are recent trends to include lyotropic liquid crystals and gels.

The adsorption of nonionic surfactants on hydrophilic solid surfaces has been characterized using mixtures of an aprotic room-temperature ionic liquid (RT-IL) with water. The surfactants employed in this study were a series of polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers (CnEm, n is the hydrocarbon chain length, and m is the number of oxyethylene units, C10E6, C12E6, C14E6, C12E4, and C12E8), and the RT-IL used was 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (BmimBF4). This RT-IL is completely miscible with water over a whole range of concentrations. Force curve measurements by atomic force microscopy (AFM) demonstrated that the adsorption of the nonionic surfactants occurred at a silica/solution interface even in the presence of added water. The surfactant aggregates formed at the interface grew as a function of the surfactant concentration; an attractive interaction observed below the critical micelle concentration (cmc) changed into a repulsive interaction above the cmc. Interestingly, multi-step repulsive interactions were observed in a few relatively solvophobic surfactant systems (i.e., the surfactants having longer hydrocarbon chain and/or shorter oxyethylene chain) in the presence of added water. It seems likely that these repulsive interactions arise from the repeated structure of the surfactant assemblies formed between the cantilever tip and the silica surface. In contrast, the surfactant adsorption was significantly inhibited on mica because of the absence of hydrogen bonding sites and/or the presence of well-structured IL solvation layers on the mica surface.

The effect of carrier morphology on the intestinal absorption of insulin was investigated using a morphology-tunable polymeric carrier, β-cyclodextrin-grafted chitosan (BCC). The insulin-BCC complexes were prepared in either acetate or citrate buffer solutions, followed by dilution with phosphate buffer for the administration. The complex had a molecular network structure in the acetate buffer, whereas nanoparticles formed in the citrate buffer. The network structure in the acetate buffer was maintained even after dilution with a phosphate buffer, but the nanoparticles in the citrate buffer caused aggregation after dilution. Both complexes enhanced the intestinal absorption of insulin. Interestingly, their absorption profiles were totally different; prompt absorption was observed for the complex prepared in acetate buffer, whereas sustained absorption was observed for the complex prepared in citrate buffer. The difference in the absorption patterns was attributed to the difference in the complex morphology. Next, penetratin, a cell-penetrating peptide, was grafted to BCC to find further improvement in the absorption behavior. A simple mixture of penetratin and BCC was also effective. An oral administration study was also conducted in mice to observe effective suppression of glucose levels, which was further enhanced by coadministration of penetratin. Thus, BCC was proven to be an effective carrier for enhancing oral absorption of peptide drugs, and it is suggested that the carrier morphology is also an important factor that influences the absorption profile.

Ethonopharmacological relevances Job’s tears (Coix lacryma-jobi Linn.) is commonly used as an herbal medicine. The low incidence of cancer has been observed in the area of China where regularly consume Job’s tears. The effects of preparation methods of Job’s tears on anti-cancer activities were investigated. Potent in vitro anti-proliferative, apoptotic and anti-oxidative activities of semi-purified Job’s tears extracts from different preparation methods on 5 human cancer cell lines comparing with standards and commercial product were observed. Aim of study To study the anti-proliferative, apoptotic and anti-oxidative activities of semi-purified Job’s tear extracts from different preparation methods on 5 human cancer cell lines. Materials and methods The crude methanolic extracts of non-cooked, steamed and roasted Job’s tears cultivars were prepared and further semi-purified by liquid-liquid extraction techniques. Both of crude and semi-purified extracts were tested for anti-proliferative, apoptotic induction, anti-oxidative activities and phytochemicals content. Results The highest yields of crude and-purified extracts were 4.60% and 1.46%, respectively. In crude extracts, the steamed whole Thai Black Loei Job’s tears (W-TBL-S1) extract showed the highest anti-proliferative activity in mouth epidermal carcinoma cell (KB) at the IC50 of 43.61±0.76 μg/ml (0.005 folds of doxorubicin), whereas the roasted whole Laos White Loei Job’s tears (W-LWL-R2) extract showed the highest apoptotic activity in cervical adenocarcinoma (HeLa) at 21.52±1.50% (0.22 and 15.05 folds of doxorubicin and commercial product, respectively). After liquid-liquid extraction, almost all of the semi-purified extracts showed increases in anti-proliferative activity. Ethyl acetate fraction of the roasted whole Laos White Loei Job’s tears (W-LWL-R2) showed the highest anti-proliferative activity in HeLa cell at the IC50 of 0.97±0.82 μg/ml (7.82 and 45.39 folds of doxorubicin and crude extract, respectively) and apoptotic activity of 18.77±6.31% (0.19 folds of doxorubicin). The commercial product showed no anti-proliferative activity in all cell lines but induced apoptosis in HeLa cell at 1.43±0.34%. The butanol and hexane soluble fractions of the roasted whole of Laos White Loei Job’s tears (W-LWL-R2) showed the highest free radical scavenging (SC50) and metal chelating activity (MC50) of 0.31±0.06 mg/ml (0.64 folds of ascorbic acid) and 0.08±0.01 mg/ml (6.37 folds of EDTA), respectively. All ethyl acetate fractions contain high content of carotenoid and tannin, whereas the hexane soluble fraction of the roasted hull of Laos Black Loei Job’s tears (H-LBL-R1) showed the highest linoleic acid content of 8.09±0.74% w/w. Conclusions This study has demonstrated the potent anti-cancer activity of the semi-purified extracts from roasted Job’s tears with high potential for further development to modern anti-cancer drug.