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Introduction Latino populations, particularly those living in rural areas, experience a disproportionately high prevalence and poorer outcomes of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The purpose of this study was to test the acceptability and perceived effectiveness of a group-based, facilitated digital storytelling intervention for T2DM self-management among rural Latino patients. Method Twenty Latino adults with T2DM participated in facilitated storytelling discussions at two primary clinics. Participants viewed a 12-minute T2DM self-management digital storytelling intervention, followed by a facilitated group discussion. Surveys, observations, and focus groups were used to assess for acceptability and perceived effectiveness of the intervention through descriptive and qualitative analysis, informed by narrative and social cognitive theory. Results All participants found the intervention interesting and useful and reported improvement in confidence, motivation, and behavioral intentions for T2DM self-management. Themes mapped closely with narrative theory models, further suggestive of the behavior change potential. Discussion Facilitated discussions may add value to viewing of digital stories and represent a scalable approach to provide culturally congruent health care for Latino patients with diabetes in rural settings. Within the paradigm of group-based diabetes educational programs, this lends itself well to critical transcultural nursing care.

Background:Cases of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) were first reported in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. In this report, we describe 3 clusters of COVID-19 infections among healthcare workers (HCWs), not associated with patient exposure, and the interventions undertaken to halt ongoing exposure and transmission at our cancer center.Methods:A cluster of cases was defined as 2 or more cases of severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)–positive COVID-19 among HCWs who work in the same unit area at the same time. Cases were identified by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction testing. Contact tracing, facility observations, and infection prevention assessments were performed to investigate the 3 clusters between March 1 and April 30, 2020, with subsequent implementation of containment strategies.Results:The initial cluster involved HCWs from an ancillary services unit, with contacts traced back to a gathering in a break room in which 1 employee was symptomatic, although not yet diagnosed with COVID-19, with subsequent transmission to 7 employees. The second cluster involved 4 employees and was community related. The third cluster involved only 2 employees with possible transmission while working in the same office at the same time. A step-up approach was implemented to control the spread of infection among employees, including universal masking, enhanced cleaning, increase awareness, and surveillance testing. No nosocomial transmission to patients transpired.Conclusions:To our knowledge, this is the first report of a hospital-based cluster of COVID-19 infections among HCWs in a cancer hospital describing our steps to mitigate further transmission.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from arid irrigated agricultural soil in California have been predicted to represent 8% of the state’s total GHG emissions. Although specialty crops compose the majority of the state’s crops in both economic value and land area, the portion of GHG emissions contributed by them is still highly uncertain. Current and emerging soil management practices affect the mitigation of those emissions. Herein, we review the scientific literature on the impact of soil management practices in California specialty crop systems on GHG nitrous oxide emissions. As such studies from most major specialty crop systems in California are limited, we focus on two annual and two perennial crops with the most data from the state: tomato, lettuce, wine grapes and almond. Nitrous oxide emission factors were developed and compared to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission factors, and state-wide emissions for these four crops were calculated for specific soil management practices. Dependent on crop systems and specific management practices, the emission factors developed in this study were either higher, lower or comparable to IPCC emission factors. Uncertainties caused by low gas sampling frequency in these studies were identified and discussed. These uncertainties can be remediated by robust and standardized estimates of nitrous oxide emissions from changes in soil management practices in California specialty crop systems. Promising practices to reduce nitrous oxide emissions and meet crop production goals, pertinent gaps in knowledge on this topic and limitations of this approach are discussed.

The potential capacity of children to confront the HIV/AIDS pandemic is rarely considered. Interventions to address the impact of the pandemic on children and adolescents commonly target only their vulnerabilities. We evaluated the Young Citizens Program, an adolescent-centered health promotion curriculum designed to increase self- and collective efficacy through public education and community mobilization across a municipality in the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania. The theoretical framework for the program integrates aspects of human capability, communicative action, social ecology and social cognition. The design consists of a cluster randomized-controlled trial (CRCT). Fifteen pairs of matched geopolitically defined neighborhoods of roughly 2000–4000 residents were randomly allocated to treatment and control arms. Within each neighborhood cluster, 24 randomly selected adolescents, ages 9–14, deliberated on topics of social ecology, citizenship, community health and HIV/AIDS competence. Building on their acquired understanding and confidence, they dramatized the scientific basis and social context of HIV infection, testing and treatment in their communities over a 28-week period. The curriculum comprised 5 modules: Group Formation, Understanding our Community, Health and our Community, Making Assessments and Taking Action in our Community and Inter-Acting in our Community. Adolescent participants and adult residents representative of their neighborhoods were surveyed before and after the intervention; data were analyzed using multilevel modeling. In treatment neighborhoods, adolescents increased their deliberative and communicative efficacy and adults showed higher collective efficacy for children. Following the CRCT assessments, the control group received the same curriculum. In the Kilimanjaro Region, the Young Citizens Program is becoming recognized as a structural, health promotion approach through which adolescent self-efficacy and child collective efficacy are generated in the context of civil society and local government.

Given the host of tragic events that children experience, it is often compelling for well-intended adults to respond in a protective and charitable fashion. The child rights approach asks for more. Building on their collective experiences in the developmental and social sciences, the authors present in roughly chronological fashion a synopsis of the theoretical explorations and scientific evaluation that completes a framework to advance the status of children as citizens. The recognition of the agency and capability of a child and the dynamic and enduring source of socialization from and social integration within the community are fundamental to this project. The participatory rights enshrined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child serve as an impetus and inspiration to this project, the Young Citizens Program. What began with small-scale deliberative groups in Chicago matured into a cluster randomized controlled trial in northern Tanzania.

Objective The purpose of this study was to investigate correlation during concurrent measurement among three knee joint position sense (JPS) measures in sitting position and between two measures in standing position. Methods Isokinetic dynamometer, electrogoniometer, and two dimensional (2D) video analysis were used for measuring knee JPS. The JPS was measured both in sitting and standing positions. All three measures were employed concurrently to measure knee JPS in sitting position; however, only the electrogoniometer and 2D video analysis were concurrently used in the standing position. The knee JPS was recorded in sitting position at 15°, 30°, and 45° and in standing at high, mid and low knee flexion positions. Results The results of the study suggest excellent correlation (0.94–0.98) between the electrogoniometer and 2D video analysis measures in standing position. In sitting position, good to excellent correlation (0.63–0.92) was found between the isokinetic dynamometer and electrogoniometer; however, fair to good correlation was found between 2D video analysis and either of the two measures (electrogoniometer [0.52–0.57] and isokinetic dynamometer [0.41–0.63]. Conclusion Either 2D video or an electrogoniometer may be used to measure JPS in standing position; however, in sitting position 2D video should not be used if the camera is required to be placed at 10° from the plane of motion.

Research Findings: Using data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, this article relates neighborhood characteristics to the type of child care used in families with toddlers and preschoolers (N = 1,121; representative of children in Chicago in 1996–1998). Neighborhood structural disadvantage was assessed via U.S. Census data, and neighborhood processes (i.e., density of social networks, collective efficacy, and level of participation in neighborhood organizations) were accessed with a community survey. Child care decisions (i.e., whether they chose care in centers; child care homes by non-relative, by relatives, and exclusively by parents) and the quality of center child care (Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale–Revised) were assessed in a longitudinal sample. After controlling for family characteristics, various neighborhood characteristics were related to child care characteristics. In communities with denser social networks, children were less likely to experience care i...

Background: The pandemic of HIV/AIDS is actually a composite of many regional and national-level epidemics. The progress made in many parts of the developed and developing world is tempered by the continued devastating consequences of HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This review focuses on the ways in which children and adolescents are impacted by the epidemic, giving particular attention to their mental health. Methods: A health promotion framework is adopted to guide analysis. Three issues are covered: prevention of HIV infection, care and treatment of children infected with HIV, and care of children whose caregivers are ill or have died of AIDS. Existing reviews and literature search engines were used to review the scientific literature, focusing on the past five years. Results: Preventive interventions continue to manifest limited benefits in behavioral changes. More complex causal models and improved behavioral measures are needed. In the African context, the time has come to view pediatric AIDS as a chronic disease in which the mental health of caregivers and children influences important aspects of disease prevention and management. Increasingly sophisticated studies support earlier findings that social and psychological functioning, educational achievement and economic well-being of children who lose parents to AIDS are worse than that of other children. Conclusions: Important changes are taking place in SSA in increased access to HIV testing and antiretroviral therapies. To be effective in promoting mental health of children and adolescents, interventions require a more fundamental understanding of how to build HIV competence at personal and community levels. A key recommendation calls for the design and execution of population-based studies that include both multilevel and longitudinal features. Such rigorous conceptual and empirical investigations that assess the capacities of children are required to mobilize children, families and communities in comprehensive actions plans for prevention, treatment and care in response to the enduring HIV/AIDS pandemic.

A community-based cluster randomized control trial in a medium-sized municipality in Tanzania was designed to increase local competence to control HIV/AIDS through actions initiated by children and adolescents aged 10 to 14 years. Representative groups from the 15 treatment communities reached mutual understanding about their objectives as health agents, prioritized their actions, and skillfully applied community drama (“skits”) to impart knowledge about the social realities and the microbiology of HIV/AIDS. In independently conducted surveys of neighborhood residents, differences were found between adults who did and did not witness the skits in their beliefs about the efficacy of children as HIV/AIDS primary change agents.

If it is true that a child rights framework alters our views and actions towards improving children’s lives, it is also true that the breadth of the concept makes concrete implementation difficult. In this paper the expansiveness of the concept is addressed by focusing attention on a community-based model of child-care derived from the Child Rights Legislation in Brazil. Departing from a general view of the child related policies in Brazil, the child rights monitoring system currently in place in that country is described. The potential contribution of this structure to child well-being is considered, taking account of the fact that the system is still scaling up. It is recommended that key aspects of the structure be systematically evaluated to place it on the most secure operational platform in Brazil. Such an effort will advance the generalizability of the Brazilian experience to other countries and guide applications of this model, particularly in democratically developing societies.

Objectives The purpose of this study was to compare knee joint laxity and muscular strength between male and female athletes and male and female non-athletes, and to determine if any differences existed among these variables. Participants Fifty-four (27 male, 27 female) apparently healthy athletes and fifty-three (25 male, 28 female) non-athletes volunteered. Main outcome measures The KT-1000 knee arthrometer quantified knee joint laxity during three passive drawer tests (66, 89, and 133N); one active drawer test; and one maximum manual displacement test. The Biodex isokinetic dynamometer measured muscular strength during five maximal repetitions at 60°/s. Results Non-athletes had significantly greater laxity compared to athletes on three of the variables. No significant differences were found between males and females in laxity. Athletes had significantly greater peak torque of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles as well as a greater hamstring to quadriceps ( H : Q ) ratio compared to non-athletes. Males produced significantly greater peak torque of the quadriceps and hamstrings compared to females. Conclusions These findings suggest that laxity is related more to athletic participation than gender; therefore, knee joint laxity may not explain the higher incidence of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in females. However, gender differences in peak torque suggest that strength may influence the higher knee injury incidence in female athletes.

Background and Purpose. The literature on teaching statistics at the university level provides support for the use of tools such as graphic organizers to help students understand the often confusing and sometimes complex process of selecting the appropriate statistical test for a given research question or design. This is the first of 2 reports that present several graphic organizers (also known as decision trees or flow charts) as decision-making guides for students to aid in the selection of appropriate statistical tests representative of those commonly used in physical therapy. Method/Model Description and Evaluation. To use the graphic organizers, the student learns 4 fundamental statistical concepts and then follows a decision-making process that leads to an appropriate statistical analysis. A prospective 2-group, reverse-design study on students who were familiar with the statistical textbook but not with the graphical organizer showed significant differences between the graphical organizer and textbook in both the time taken to select an appropriate statistical test and student preference. The graphic organizer led to correct statistical selection 3 times more often than the textbook. Outcomes. For 4 years, we have used the graphic organizer in the curriculum for students enrolled in a Master of Physical Therapy (MPT) program, receiving excellent student feedback. Discussion and Conclusion. The graphic organizers presented in this publication can be used to simplify the decision-making process for professional (entry-level) or postprofessional physical therapist students in choosing a statistical analysis for research questions that investigate group differences. The graphic organizers are convenient to use and can provide a visual organization of the decision-making process while highlighting the concepts discussed in a traditional statistics course. Key Words: Graphic organizer, Statistics, Research design, Group differences. BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE This is the first of 2 reports that presents a decision-making guide for the appropriate matching of statistical tests to research designs. The article presents several graphic organizers (also known as decision trees or flow charts) that focus on research designs and statistical approaches representative of those commonly used in physical therapy. We based the content of the graphic organizers on a compilation of statistical analyses reported in Physical Therapy and the Journal of Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy from January 2001 through June 2002. This analysis showed that approximately 65% of articles examined group differences, while approximately 35% were correlation/ regression designs (Table 1). This paper will focus on statistics for the former. The literature on teaching statistics at the university level provides support for the use of tools such as graphic organizers to help students understand the often confusing and sometimes complex process of selecting the appropriate statistical test for a given research question or design. As suggested by Pan and Tang,1 the use of a statistics "cheat sheet" can decrease graduate students' statistics anxiety without damaging the learning process, since the students must know the concepts in order to use the information. Additionally, an illustration that is clear, self-contained, easily grasped, and provokes reflection may enhance the "Aha!" experience of the statistics student.2 Several authors3-6 have noted that even though students can learn how to use statistical analysis, they often do not know how to apply the analysis to research scenarios. Statistical tests are commonly taught 1 test at a time without selection skills;7 the integration of selection skills could enhance the practical application of that knowledge.3-6,8 Manual computational procedures may not be as necessary to learn with the availability of computer programs, but instructors still need to help students develop skills necessary to select the appropriate statistical test. …

Background and Purpose. Developing cultural competence in physical therapist students is an important hut daunting objective for physical therapist education programs. The Hispanic/Latino minority group is the most rapidly increasing segment of the US population and numbers on the US/Mexico border place it in the majority. A basic step toward elimination of cultural barriers is common language. The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the effectiveness of learning clinical Spanish by physical therapist students. Subjects. Twenty volunteer physical therapist students began the pilot study. Eighteen completed the 12-hour course of study. Methods. Students met for 12 hours over 4 weeks to learn Hispanic culture, basic Spanish grammar, and clinical terminology. The classes were conducted by a member of the Languages and Linguistics Department of the College of Liberal Arts. Students were given a pretest during the first class and a posttest at the end of the final class. Results. A paired t test showed significant (117=4.381, P Keywords: Cultural competence, Physical therapy, Spanish language, Hispanic/Latino. INTRODUCTION In the effort to academically prepare physical therapist students to practice the complexities embraced by the profession, programs may not find, or take, sufficient time to properly include all of the interpersonal aspects required to be successful with clients. Leavitt stated, "Historically, few practicing rehabilitation professionals have been suitably educated on the issues associated with the delivery of cross-cultural health care."1(p37) The elements involved in becoming culturally competent in even a single culture other than one's own are myriad. When the task of understanding many cultures is contemplated, gaining some semblance of competence seems impossible. Yet, students must be helped to gain the interpersonal skills necessary to effectively interact with clients by overcoming language and cultural barriers. Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate learning clinical Spanish by physical therapist students. The hypothesis was that students in the physical therapy curriculum would significantly increase their proficiency in clinical Spanish with 12 hours of instruction. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The population of the United States has become increasingly racially and ethnically diverse over the past several decades. In 1992, persons of Hispanic/latino culture constituted 9.4% of the population2; by the year 2050, they may account for about 25% of the population.3 There are currently about 31.4 million Americans of Hispanic/Latino origin and 35% of them are under age 18.4 At present, about 32 million people in the US speak languages other than English at home and about half of these speak Spanish. By the year 2050, persons representing ethnic and racial minority groups will comprise nearly half of all Americans.3 In 1999, the US Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) structured a plan to increase health care access and decrease disparities in health care delivery.5 In fiscal Year 2001, HRSA adopted a new strategic direction to address health disparities. It has created a definition of a health disparity: "A population-specific difference in the presence of disease, health outcomes, or access to care."5(p6) in conjunction with the drive to decrease disparities, HRSA has established a substrategy for "increasing the cultural competence of the health care workforce. …

This article introduces the principles and articles of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and discusses the implications of this new conceptualization of childhood for child mental health. Consistent with the articles of the CRC, Canadian and US health administrations call for including the perspectives and participation of children in promotion of their own mental health and in the planning of mental health services. Examples of the incorporation of the CRC into programs and services for children and youth are described.

▪ Abstract The term social ecology refers to the nested arrangement of family, school, neighborhood, and community contexts in which children grow up. In this chapter, new directions in public health science as reflected in the theoretical and methodological implications of the concept are explored. The contributions of this ecologically oriented approach to child health practice, designed as it is from a health promotions perspective, are considered. A critique of the term social capital is also presented because of its growing popularity in matters of child health. The point is made that application of this vague term carries the serious risk of misspecifying social phenomena. Future trends in the promotion of child well-being are in a position to flourish given the confluence of advances in theory, methods, and analytical capacity. The capacity to benefit children is also enhanced as public health science aims to translate the principles of child rights into health practice and policy.

Four species of alcids are maintained in an outdoor exhibit at the Seattle Aquarium. For three successive years. a pair of Tufted puffins Lunda eirrhata has hatched a chick, two of which have fledged. A Rhinoceros auklet Crrorlzinca tnonceruata pair has nested and eggs have been laid every year since 1991. Although the eggs were infertile, breeding attempts by this species are unusual in captivity. The paper describes the enclosure, diet, provision of nesting burrows. observations on breeding and notes on hand-rearing a puffin chick.

Background and Purpose. Lateral patello-femoral pain can shorten an athletic career and generally decrease an individual's physical activity and functional level, such as preventing stair climbing and reducing the ability to rise from a chair. Leg length inequality is associated with patello-femoral pain. A leg length test that best distinguishes the difference between people who have lateral patello-femoral pain and those who do not would have clinical utility. The purpose of the present study was, first, to determine if unilateral, lateral patello-femoral pain was associated with the longer leg when inequality of leg lengths existed and, second, to determine if leg length direct measurement, indirect measurement or quadriceps angle (Q angle) could correctly classify participants according to the presence or absence of patello-femoral pain. Method. The study used an ex post facto, two-group quasi-experimental design. A volunteer sample of 52 participants (14 males, 38 females), ranged in age from 18 to 52 years. Three methods were used to measure leg lengths: palpation meter (PALM) on anterior superior iliac spines (ASIS) while participants maintained centred weight-bearing position on a high resolution pressure mat; tape measurement from ASIS to medial malleolus (supine); tape measurement from ASIS to lateral malleolus (supine). Additionally, Q angle was measured in supine position. Patellar grind test, medial retinacular and lateral patellar palpation screened for patello-femoral pain. Results. Logistic regression analysis determined correctness of membership in painful and non-painful patello-femoral groups. The PALM method of indirect measurement of leg length differences overall correctly classified approximately 83% of the participants. Tape measure to medial and lateral malleoli as well as Q angle did not yield significant results. Conclusion. The results suggested that the PALM method of measuring leg length differences may have clinical utility in differentiating between patients who are likely to sustain patello-femoral pain syndrome and those who will not. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Background and PurposePostpoliomyelitis sequelae, such as gait instability and progressive weakness, predispose people with postpolio syndrome to secondary disabilities. With aging, people who depend on their upper extremities to accommodate lower-extremity deficits may anticipate overuse injuries. The purpose of this case report is to describe the use of mobilization and exercise in postoperative rehabilitation of rotator cuff surgery on a patient with postpolio syndrome.Case DescriptionA 48-year-old woman with postpolio syndrome had rotator cuff surgical repair followed by physical therapy intervention. Maitland mobilization and mild functional exercises were chosen to avoid triggering fatigue.OutcomesMeasurements taken preoperatively, before and after physical therapy intervention, and 2 years after intervention showed return to independent status with excellent retention.DiscussionNo fatigue or overuse weakness was encountered. This is the first case report to document physical therapy following rotator cuff repair in a patient with postpolio syndrome.

The social scientific study of children is an evolving discipline, a fact that benefits society in that our knowledge about the lives of children presumably improves with every refinement of the scientific method. Among the latest and most important innovations to appear is Search Institute’s methodology of developmental assets, which offers a “set of benchmarks” for families and communities to follow to help ensure “positive child and adolescent development” (Benson, Leffert, Scales, & Blyth, 1998). The framework of developmental assets represents a huge step forward in social science because it studies positive youth development, not merely negative actions such as delinquency or drug use, and strives to characterize both “external assets” in the community and “internal assets” held by children themselves.

It has been previously suggested that two conditions must be met in order for sprouting to occur in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord: afferent fibers must be stimulated to grow and alternate synaptic sites must be made available. We show that reversibly deactivating peripheral nerve axons by nerve crush alone, which produces little or no additional available synaptic sites, results in expansion of the peripheral nerve inputs in the spinal cord in both adult and infant macaque monkeys.

“Embryos undergo development; ancestors have undergone evolution, but in their day they also were the products of development. Our first task must therefore be to define these two sets of events to which living things are subject.” (from Embryos and Ancestors, G. de Beer, 1958)

Research on cerebral cortex function during the 50-year period referred to in the above quote was conducted by clinicians before the development of the neuroanatomical and electrophysiological methods that have dominated research on cortical sensory areas over the last 75 years. As these new experimental techniques gained in prominence in research on nonhuman species (and perhaps occupied the “acutest intellects in medicine”), interest in sensory phenomena and skills associated with sensory areas declined. Many of the same theoretical issues raised in the early clinical studies of tactile function following disease, injury, or surgical removal of parietal cortex remain the topic of contemporary research in the somatic sensory system. Review of the earlier experimental studies of tactile deficits following surgical lesions in nonhuman primates points to several important methodological issues, such as the significance of the age and species of experimental subject, of types of tasks used to assess tactile skills, and the basis for specification of the specific cortical area(s) involved in a particular skill, which may account for some of the differences in findings between past and current studies. Recent and ongoing studies from my laboratory on a variety of Old and New World primates are summarized to present both a comparative and a developmental perspective on the role of somatic sensory cortex in tactile discrimination capacity. In these studies, physiological mapping and selective cortical lesions were done, in conjunction with tactile discrimination testing, to determine how normal cortical organization and/or surgical intervention in cortical areas related to tactile capacity. Finally, theories that address the relationship between ontogenetic and phylogenetic changes in brain and behavior will be discussed to bring together the findings on development and evolution of the somatic sensory system and tactile capacities in primates.

Thirty-two elementary aged learning-disabled students were administered the math and reading subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery, KeyMath, and Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests. Grade equivalent scores and standard scores were compared and yielded significant correlations that range from .79 to .93. Mean grade equivalent scores did however significantly differ for the two reading measures but not when standard scores were used. The two math indices yielded nonsignificant grade equivalent scores. Similarities and differences between the instruments are discussed in relation to enhancing the identification of learning disabilities.

Somatic sensory (SI) cortex was mapped in hyraxes by micromapping methods developed and used earlier in slow lorises and llamas. The somatotopic pattern of organization was similar in its general features to that found in other mammals. The perioral and intraoral representations are relatively large in SI of hyrax and exhibit considerable distortion. Sulci are reliable landmarks demarcating boundaries of SI in hyrax as they are in other mammals.

The topography of low-threshold (LT) cutaneous input from the hand to SmI cortex of the prosimian primate Nycticebus coucang was mapped in detail by means of threshold receptive field techniques. The area of cortex responding to LT stimulation of the hand can be divided into three distinct subdivisions on the basis of physiological as well as cytoarchitectonic criteria. The rostral subdivision in the hand area (G1) responds to stimulation of the glabrous surface of the digits and hand. Within this field cells located rostrally have receptive fields located on the glabrous digit tips, while caudally located cells respond to stimulation of the proximal glabrous palm. Receptive fields in G1 are small in size and have low thresholds. G1 is coextensive with an area of cortex having the cytoarchitectonic features of koniocortex. The caudal region of the LT hand area consists of two subdivisions. Laterally, cells in this caudal region (H) respond to stimulation of the dorsal hairy digits and hand. Receptive fields on the dorsal hairy digits are found rostrally in this subdivision, while receptive fields on the dorsal hand and wrist are encountered caudally. Thus, the hand is projected serially across G1 and H. Within H, thresholds are similar to those in G1, but receptive fields are much larger in H than in G1. A second glabrous hand area (G2), is found in the medial part of the caudal region of the LT hand area. In G2 receptive fields on the glabrous ulnar digits are encountered rostrally, while more caudally cells respond to stimulation of the radial digits. Few glabrous palm fields were found in G2. Receptive field sizes and thresholds in G2 are quite similar to those in G1. Subdivisions H and G2 have the cytoarchitectonic characteristics of parakoniocortex. Although H and G2 are not distinguishable from one another, they can be easily separated from the more rostral koniocortex which contains the first glabrous hand area (G1). Thus, the SmI hand area of Nycticebus is unique among those of the other prosimian, Galago, thus far mapped in that two separate somatotopic projection patterns of the glabrous hand are present within the LT area. In this respect, Nycticebus more closely resembles simian species in which multiple LT hand areas are present in SmI in all forms which have been mapped. This is not to suggest that G2 in Nycticebus is either homologous to, or a precursor of, those multiple cutaneous areas reported for Old and New World simian species. Rather we suggest that the second glabrous projection in Nycticebus, and that of simian species, may have been achieved by the displacement of the dorsal hand projection occupying the architectonically distinct caudal SmI field in earlier prosimian species.

In order to gain insight into the functional properties of the tail in North American beavers (Castor canadensis) we (1) examined morphological features of skeletal, muscular, vascular, cutaneous and neural structures; (2) determined the segmental organization of spinal roots and certain stimulus-response features of receptive fields of single dorsal root fibers; (3) mapped the main somatic sensory area (SI) of the cerebral neocortex, and (4) attempted to relate these findings to observations of tail behavior in living beavers. The behavioral observations revealed the beaver capable of forceful yet discrete movements of the tail in water. A morphological correlate of these motor skills was the distinct segmentally organized pattern of serial muscle tendon arrangements and spinal sensory and motor innervation. Neither the receptors innervating the scales or hairs of the tail, the stimulus-response properties of single dorsal root afferents, nor the representation of the tail in SI suggested unusual cutaneous sensory capabilities associated with the morphological and behavioral specializations exhibited by the beaver's tail.

The topographic organization of the primary somatic sensory projection area (SmI) in relation to cytoarchitectural fields and sulcal patterns was examined in the prosimian primate Perodicticus potto. The area of cortex responding to low threshold (LT) cutaneous stimulation of the glabrous and hairy surfaces of the hand was determined by microelectrode mapping techniques, with standardized threshold stimuli for defining receptive fields. A single somatotopic projection of the two hand surfaces was found; the glabrous projection area is rostral to that of the hairy hand. Within both the glabrous and hairy areas, receptive fields on the distal digits are found anterior to those on the proximal hand. The glabrous hand projection area is coextensive with a dense granular area typical of koniocortex. The hairy hand area corresponds to a cytoarchitectural field which is less granular than the glabrous field. While koniocortex occupies the crown of the gyrus caudal to the coronally oriented sulcus, a large more rostral field, which contains both granule and large pyramidal cells, occupies the whole of the caudal bank of the sulcus. Force thresholds of many receptive fields (RFs) in Perodicticus were high both on the borders and within the LT area (perhaps because of the advanced age of these animals). However, the receptive field sizes for both the glabrous and hairy hand areas were of the same magnitude as those of Nycticebus (Carlson and FitzPatrick, '82). From the combined studies of three species of Lorisidae, Perodicticus, Galago (Carlson and Welt, '80), and Nycticebus (Carlson and FitzPatrick, '81), using similar mapping and stimulation techniques, both general and specific features of SmI hand area organization can be illustrated. A single projection of the glabrous and hairy hand is common to Perodicticus and Galago, but two glabrous projection areas are seen in Nycticebus. The projection area for the hand in Perodicticus is twice as large (relative to brain size) as in Galago and Perodicticus. The possible behavioral significance of increased differentiation of the hand area in Nycticebus and elaboration of the area in Perodicticus could be examined by study of hand use and tactile capacity in these same species.

The present study compared performance levels of 44 learning disabled students using the Revised Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Bender Gestalt, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Chidren—Revised. Significant correlations were found between all three measures of visual-motor development as well as those measures and the WISC-R Performance IQ. In comparing mean age equivalent scores, the Bender was found to score significantly higher than either of the VMI scales. The VMI and VMI-R did not yield different age scores. Implications of these results for the practitioner were discussed.

This study re-examines the double dissociation of tactile deficits resulting from restricted surgical removals of Brodmann's areas 1 and 2 in the postcentral gyrus of macaque monkeys. Area 1-operated animals showed selective deficits on texture tasks, roughness and line discriminations, while area 2-operated animals showed deficits only on angle tasks, size and curve discriminations. Severe deficits were evident in spite of preoperative training, forced correction trials, and the presentation of tasks of graded difficulty.

Because members of the New World family, Callitrichidae, are generally regarded as the most primitive of monkeys, we studied the organization of somatosensory cortex in the tamarin (Saguinus) in hopes of better understanding differences in the organization of anterior parietal cortex in primates and how these differences relate to phylogeny. In most prosimian primates only one complete representation of cutaneous receptors has been found in the region of primary cortex, S-I, while in all Old and New World monkeys studied to date, two cutaneous representations exist in distinct architectonic fields, areas 3b and 1. In detailed microelectrode mapping studies in anesthetized tamarins, only one complete representation responsive to low-threshold cutaneous stimulation was evident in the S-I region. This topographic representation was in a parietal koniocortical field that architectonically resembles area 3b of other monkeys, and the general somatotopic organization of the field was similar to that of area 3b of other monkeys. Cortex rostral to the single representation was generally unresponsive to somatosensory stimuli, or required more intense stimulation for neural activation. Cortex caudal to the representation, in the region of area 1 of other monkeys, was generally either unresponsive or responded to only high-threshold stimulation, although some recording sites were activated by low-threshold tactile stimulation. The present evidence, together with that from previous studies, suggests that the single, complete body surface representation in Saguinus is homologous to the S-I representation found in some prosimians (Galago, Perodicticus) and the area 3b cutaneous representation found in New World Cebidae (Aotus, Saimiri, and Cebus) and Old World Macaca. Cortex rostral to S-I in Saguinus has the appearance of areas 3a and 4 of other primates. The cortex caudal to S-I in Saguinus, while resembling area 1 in some ways, does not have all of the features of area 1 of other monkeys. In particular, the field was not easily activated by low-threshold cutaneous stimuli, as area 1 is in other monkeys, and therefore a second cutaneous representation of all body parts was not demonstrated. Thus, cortex in the expected location of area 1 of Saguinus was not as responsive as area 1 of other monkeys, and it somewhat resembled the high-threshold fringe zones found caudal to S-I in anesthetized prosimians and some nonprimates. The results raise the possibility that the area 1 cutaneous representation that is characteristic of other New World monkeys and Old World monkeys evolved from a less responsive precursor along the caudal border of S-I in early monkeys.

Four infant macaques between the ages of 2.7 and 6.7 weeks and 5 juvenile macaques between the ages of 78.6 and 108.3 weeks received partial, unilateral lesions of the hand projection in primary somatic sensory cortex (SmI) (either Brodmann's area 3 or areas 1 and 2 combined). Following these partial SmI lesions, both infants and juveniles showed some initial impairment on acquisition and slightly inferior performance on the size-ALL task. Both infants and juveniles were able to discriminate smaller size differences with the contralateral hand than partial SmI-lesioned adult macaques with similar SmI lesions in previous studies. After partial SmI lesions, infants and juveniles were markedly retarded in the acquisition of texture discriminations indicating that, as in adult macaques, these separate SmI areas contribute jointly to texture discrimination capacity. However, in contrast to adult animals, all infants and most juveniles were able to master all levels of texture tasks after 2-4 months of training. On the texture-ALL task, the performance of partial SmI-lesioned infants was slightly inferior to that of normal infants with the contralateral hand but significantly better than normal infants on the ipsilateral hand. Lesioned juveniles showed impairment on both contralateral and ipsilateral hands. Recovery of near-normal tactile function in both partial SmI-lesioned infants and juveniles is seen although mature levels of function are typical of normal infants over this same age range.

Infant macaques between the ages of 7 and 25 weeks of age were trained on a series of manual tactile discrimination tasks. Tactile discrimination capacity, as measured by the most difficult level of size and texture discrimination tasks mastered, was the same for all ages of infants and did not differ from that of adults. Infants as young as 10 weeks of age were found to have a discrimination capacity similar to that of adult macaques, although an adult level of manual motor control had not been achieved by this early age. During the acquisition of size tasks, older animals made fewer errors than did younger animals, suggesting an improved efficiency in size discrimination capacity over the first 6 months of life. By contrast, the efficiency with which the younger animals mastered texture discrimination was superior to that of the older infants. The possible contributions of sensory experience or manual motor control to the maturation of sensory capacity were examined by applying 16 weeks of sensory restriction in one infant and a unilateral motor cortex lesion in another infant, respectively. Only transient impairment was found in either case suggesting that neither tactile experience nor motor control contribute significantly to the maturation of tactile discrimination capacity in infant macaques.

Four infant macaques between the ages of 3.0 and 5.1 weeks and three juvenile macaques between the ages of 79.9 and 109.3 weeks received unilateral lesions of all cytoarchitectural fields (Brodmann's areas 3, 1 and 2) in the hand area of the postcentral gyrus. These total SmI-lesioned infants acquired the size and texture tasks within the same time period and with the same efficiency as normal infants. On some size- and texture-ALL tasks they actually performed significantly better than partial SmI-lesioned or normal infants. The normal acquisition and ALL performance of the infants with total SmI lesions contrasts with that of the juveniles with comparable lesions. On size acquisition and ALL tasks, with the contralateral hand, total SmI-lesioned juveniles were significantly inferior to normal and total SmI-lesioned infants and to partial SmI-lesioned juveniles. During texture acquisition with the contralateral hand, the total SmI-lesioned juveniles made significantly more errors than normal and total SmI-lesioned infants. The capacity to recover from partial SmI lesions extends into the second year of life and is a gradual process which may be mediated by remaining SmI subdivisions. By contrast, the capacity to recover from total SmI lesions is restricted to infants and is a rapid process which must depend on other areas within the damaged, or possibly the intact, hemisphere.

This study examines the extent to which the restriction of visual experience to lines of a single orientation influences the organization of the striate cortex in infant monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Previous studies of kittens raised with monocular exposure to a single line orientation have consistently shown the response preference of cells driven by that eye to be biased towards the experienced orientation. Studies of binocular exposure to restricted orientations have been equivocal. In the infant monkey cortex responses to oriented lines have virtually all the specificity of responses seen in the adult animal. In an effort to clarify the phenomenon and the mechanism by which orientation bias might be obtained, we examined the effects of monocular exposure to a restricted orientation in infant macaques. Three monkeys were used. Each monkey was raised with one open eye exposed to lines of a single orientation and one eye occluded by lid suture. As in other cases of monocular deprivation in either cat or monkey, few binocularly driven cells were recorded and the majority of cells were dominated by the open eye. Cells driven by the open eye had normal representation of all orientation preferences and there was no overall increase in the number of cells preferring the orientation to which the eye had been exposed. The cells dominated by the occluded eye, however, showed a lack of cells responding to orientations to which the open eye had been exposed. These findings suggest that a competitive mechanism operates between the two eyes to provide an orientation selective advantage to the open eye.

Mechanoreceptive input from the hand to the somatic sensory cortex (SmI) of the prosimian primate Galago crassicaudatus was examined with microelectrode mapping methods. In anesthetized animals, low threshold cutaneous input from the hand projects to SmI cortex in a single, complete, somatotopically organized pattern. Within this single pattern, cells with receptive fields on the glabrous skin of the palm, digits and digit tips are located in the rostral half, and cells with RFs on the hairy skin of the dorsal hand and digits are located in the caudal half of the hand areas. The cutaneous hand area is coextensive with the densely granular architectonic region of SmI. Studies of single cells in this region of awake galagos reveal the same pattern of cutaneous input and, in addition, demonstrate the presence of cells responding to joint movement not detected in anesthetized animals. Cells responsive to joint movement are arranged in vertically oriented columns located adjacent to cutaneous columns with receptive fields on the same part of the hand. In anesthetized animals, cells rostral to the granular region, in an area typified by increasing numbers of pyramidal cells in layer V and decreasing numbers of granular cells in upper layers, respond to high threshold stimulation of large areas of the hand. The few cells isolated in this area in awake animals respond to either active or passive hand movements. In such animals, cells caudal to the granular region, in an area characterized as agranular and alaminar cortex, respond to either passive stimulation of single or multiple joints or to active hand movements. These results, together with similar findings in a related prosimian, Nycticebus coucang, emphasize the generality of a single cutaneous hand area in SmI of prosimian species. The demonstration of multiple hand areas corresponding to multiple cytoarchitectonic subdivisions in SmI of Old and New World simians illustrates the increased degree of SmI differentiation from the prosimian to the simian grade of organization. The present results further suggest that determination of the homologues of multiple areas or subdivisions within and surrounding SmI in primates will require comparisons of somatotopy, submodality, sulcal patterns, cytoarchitecture, and connectivity in representative members of prosimian and simian families.

Although this quote from The Antecedents of Man refers to the origins of the human species, it has the same relevance to the current topic—the evolution of more elaborately organized somatic sensory cortex (Sm I) of Old and New World simians from the simpler forms, the ancestral prosimians. Contemporary prosimians are the living descendents of the earliest group of primates and are believed to have separated from a common mammalian ancestor over 70 million years ago (57). Whereas living prosimians are found only in the Old World, early prosimians diversified into many forms and spread through Africa, Asia and Europe as well as North and South America. Fossil remains of many extinct genera indicate a close resemblance in cortical features between these earlier forms and some living prosimians. Examination of cerebral cortical organization in both fossil and living prosimians can be expected to facilitate our understanding of the more complex simian and anthropoid forms and to suggest evolutionary changes occurring in the primate brains derived from prosimian patterns of organization.