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The way that complainants of child sexual assault are questioned about their experiences can profoundly influence the accuracy, credibility, and consistency of their evidence. This is the case for all people, but especially children whose language, social, and cognitive capacity is still developing. In this study, we examined the questions used by a representative sample of Australian prosecutors, defense lawyers, and judges/magistrates to determine if this is an area that warrants improvement. Our focus was the type of questions used by the different professionals and how (if at all) these varied across complainant age groups (children, adolescents, and adults, total N = 63). Our findings revealed that each complainant group was questioned in a manner known to heighten misunderstanding and error (e.g., complex and leading questions were used frequently by all professional groups). There was also little indication of question adaption according to age (e.g., prosecutors asked children more complex questions than they asked adults). When the results are considered in the context of the broader literature on the impact of different question styles, they suggest that professional development in questioning would improve the quality of trial advocacy and judicial rulings.

Cases of historic child assault typically rely on the complainant's narrative due to lack of corroborating evidence. Although it is important that complainants give their best evidence, concern has been expressed that evidence-sharing procedures are suboptimal. This study explored criminal justice professionals’ perspectives on the utility of introducing reforms to the evidence-sharing process. We interviewed judges, prosecutors, defence counsel and witness assistance officers ( N = 43) on the utility of regulating the questioning of complainants and of using video-recorded interviews as evidence-in-chief. Many professionals perceived that adult complainants of child assault were vulnerable and supported reforms to evidence-sharing. Primary objections to these reforms were the belief that all adult complainants should share evidence in the same way and the poor quality of investigative interviews. This study illuminates potential barriers to the implementation of reforms which would change how adult complainants of child assault give evidence.

For over a century, changes have been implemented in the way the evidence of adult and child sexual assault complainants is received during the common-law adversarial trial process. Could the fact that reforms have rarely affected the way information is gathered at the initial stages of investigation be a reason why legal systems still struggle with prosecuting sexual offences, but particularly those against children? An abundance of research demonstrates how question types influence the accuracy and detail of reported information. Few studies, however, have focused on the (downstream) impact on legal decisions. This paper begins with a brief overview of reforms to the information-gathering process across the twentieth century that indicate how fraught the issue of information gathering has been; it then reviews contemporary information-gathering strategies and proposes reforms to better align contemporary procedures with sound evidence-based practice. We argue that decision makers, including police, lawyers, clinical and forensic practitioners and judiciary need to better understand the science to bring about overdue change.

Computer-based simulations provide an opportunity for social work students to learn effective communication skills that sit at the core of social work practice. The current study describes a best practice interviewing protocol that promotes the use of open-ended questions (i.e. that elicit elaborate responses without dictating expected content) taught using a computer-generated child avatar. Utilising a mixed method design, quantitative analysis showed social work students (N = 25) who undertook a 3-hour training session showed improvements from baseline to post-training. There was a significant increase in open-ended questions and a concomitant decrease in poorly structured (closed) questions. Thematic analysis (N = 39) of participant feedback on the training supported students’ understanding that open-ended questions are key to eliciting detailed information. Students were positive about the use of technology and its place in social work education, highlighting its realism and the absence of risk to clients while learning. Evidence of emerging reflective practice and understanding of the self when engaging with technology-based education is discussed.

This study aims to advance the field of child forensic interviewing by assessing the impact of different refresher training modalities on police officers’ abilities to adhere to the steps of an interview protocol and on the types of questions used. Previously trained police officers (N = 46) were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: (1) supervision with an expert, (2) peer group supervision, and (3) computer-assisted exercises on children’s investigative interview techniques. Comparison of interviews conducted before (n = 136) and after (n = 124) the refresher modalities revealed an improvement in performance across time for almost all steps of the protocol. There were more effects associated with time than with modality of refresher training with regard to question types used during episodic memory training and the substantive phase of the interview. Although there were some differences between the three conditions, no method emerged as clearly superior. Results suggest that all modalities could be useful in refreshing adherence to the steps of an interview protocol and use of best practice questioning approaches. The discussion highlights that the time devoted to the three modalities was likely not enough and that further studies are needed to determine the most optimal delivery of refresher training.

Communication is a complex and essential element of clinical practice. It is widely accepted that communication skills can be taught and learned, but challenges remain for clinicians in achieving effective communication with patients. This study explored the patient-communication challenges faced by both medical students and experienced clinicians.Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty medical students and nineteen experienced clinicians from a range of medical disciplines. Interviews were recorded and transcribed, and transcriptions subjected to thematic analysis and coding to quantify the challenges discussed.There was remarkable consistency in the challenges described by both groups of participants, with eight predominant challenges identified: time constraints and chaotic environments, rapport building, patient characteristics, reluctance, omissions, assumptions, decision-making, and keeping conversations focused.Medical curricula often focus on communication challenges associated with complex or sensitive clinical situations, but many of the challenges identified occur in routine consultations. Both pre-service and post-graduate medical training should adopt strategies to help build students' and clinicians' skills in managing these challenges from the outset of training.

The current study tested the effectiveness of a compact (18 hour) and blended (involving online and face-to-face components) training course, adapted from a previously evaluated course found to be ...

The standard interview method (SIM) is a guidance framework for information gathering interviews. This article describes the purpose, scope, origin, experimental basis, and practical application of...

The typical misinformation effect shows that accuracy is lower for details about which people received misleading compared to non‐misleading (control) information. In two experiments, we examined the misinformation effect for non‐witnessed details (i.e., absent). Three question types introduced control, misleading, and absent details (closed, closed‐detailed, and open questions) about a mock burglary video. On this misinformation test, participants' reports of absent details were less accurate than control details only when they were introduced using open questions. Misinformation effects in a subsequent recognition test were present for misleading details in both experiments, but for absent details only in Experiment 2. Experiment 2 also revealed that participants who avoided answering open questions containing misleading and absent details had more accurate memories for these details on the subsequent recognition test than participants who answered these questions. In both experiments, confidence was lowest for absent details. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Self‐assessment is a fundamental skill for professionals because self‐assessment can promote self‐regulated learning and professional development. However, studies reporting the use of self‐assessment instruments in the professional training context are scarce. This study aimed to re‐evaluate the psychometric properties of the Self‐assessment Practice Scale (SaPS), which was originally developed in the school context, and extend its use to the professional training context. A sample of 200 investigative interviewer trainees from Australia and North America were invited to complete the modified SaPS. After removing misfitting items, the confirmatory factor analysis results confirmed a first‐order four‐factor solution. The multidimensional Rasch analysis demonstrated that the resultant 16 items had satisfactory fit to the Rasch model. In general, the results supported the use of the 16‐item modified SaPS as a valid measure for the sample in this study. The potential of using the SaPS in professional training contexts is discussed.

A key cross-examination tactic in trials of child sexual abuse (CSA) is to highlight inconsistencies between sources of information to discredit the complainant's account. The present study examine...

The present study tested the effectiveness of narrative practice on adult witnesses’ reports about a mock sexual assault. Narrative practice is a rapport-building activity that involves recounting ...

We explored Australian criminal justice professionals’ views on how well special measures for child complainants of sexual abuse are working in practice. We interviewed judges, prosecutors, defence...

When undertaking a forensic risk assessment with a young person, most evaluators complete an assessment interview to elicit autobiographical history as well as perspectives, thoughts and feelings about the individual's offending behaviour. While forensic risk assessment tools provide some suggestions on interview questions and techniques, there is no empirical research that explores the most effective strategies for eliciting detailed and reliable information in this context. This article reviews existing recommendations from the related fields of investigative interviewing and suicide risk assessment and integrates this with guidance from the forensic risk assessment literature to identify best practice recommendations for evaluators. It is hoped that this review will provide a starting point to explore how research from other fields may be integrated into risk assessment interviews to improve the quality and accuracy of forensic assessment.

This study examined the effectiveness of ground rules—simple instructions outlining the communication expectations of an investigative interview—with 73 younger (age 18–40) and 57 older (age 60+) adults. Participants watched a film depicting an implied sexual assault and were interviewed after a brief delay. One third received no ground rules, one third received ground rules as statements, and one third received the statements along with practice examples. The interview contained questions that required participants to apply one of the rules. Those who received ground rules were asked their perceptions of the rules. Results demonstrated that practicing ground rules improved response quality to problematic recognition questions, younger adults showed more variability in responses to different ground rules than older adults, and most participants found ground rule instructions useful in investigative interviews. Results provide support for the use of ground rules in interviews with adult witnesses.

PurposeInvestigative interviewers assess their colleagues' interviews (‘peer review’) as a necessary part of their practice, and for their self-development. Yet, there is little guidance around what the process involves and how they might do it. Research suggests that effective peer review is supported by using guidance material. The goal of the present work was to describe the use of such a guide by a group of professionals who regularly conduct investigative interviews with children, to share what was learned with other professionals seeking to create a formalized peer review process.Design/methodology/approachSixty US child witness interviewers completed a guided peer review assessment of an anonymous interview, as an assignment at the conclusion of an 18-hour training program that focused on developing their interviewing skills. They consented to the use of their learning data in research, and the research was approved by the university's research ethics board. Peer reviews were coded for the extent to which they used the guide to support their evaluations, and the overall quality of the review to assess the utility of the guide in supporting them to conduct effective assessments.FindingsIn general, the guide and instructions for providing feedback were moderately effective in supporting the peer assessments, but results suggested specific training in how to deliver peer review would be useful.Practical implicationsThrough this process, the authors identified components that would be helpful to further increase the efficacy of peer review.Originality/valueThe aim of this work was to spark a greater conversation among practitioners and academics about professionalizing the peer review process and aiding interviewers to develop peer review tools that would support their continued growth. The authors conclude with five key tips for professionals that stem from the experiences creating and evaluating the guide in combination with existing literature and three areas for future investigation.

Mock (simulated) interviews can be used as a safe context for trainee interviewers to learn and practice questioning skills. When mock interviews are designed to reflect the body of scientific evidence on how questioning skills are best learned, research has demonstrated that interviewers acquire relevant and enduring skills. Despite the importance of this exercise in learning interview skill and its prevalence as a learning tool in other fields such as medicine and allied health, there has been relatively little discussion about mock interviews from an educational perspective in investigative interview training. This paper addresses that gap by providing the first comprehensive overview of the way mock interviews have been used in training interviewers of children. We describe the research that supports their utility, and the various ways they can be implemented in training: providing insight to learners; allowing opportunities for practice, feedback, and discussion; and as a standardized way to assess skill change over time. The paper also includes an overview of the cutting-edge use of avatars in mock interviews to enhance efficiency, provide unique learning experiences, and ultimately reduce training costs. We explain why avatars may be particularly useful in basic training, freeing up human trainers to facilitate mock interviews around advanced topics and discussion.

Adults with communication impairment are vulnerable to abuse and are over-represented as victims in the criminal justice system. Investigative interviewers rely largely on verbal accounts to establish whether a criminal offence occurred, and therefore the way these accounts are elicited is paramount. To date, little research has evaluated whether current interviewing protocols are appropriate for eliciting accurate and detailed information from adults with communication impairment. The present study explored this issue through qualitative interviews with professionals from various disciplines. Specifically, professionals (N = 22) who had extensive experience in interviewing, disability advocacy, and cognitive and communication impairment reflected on current recommended practice and how it could potentially improve. The results indicated widespread support for the current (open questioning) approach, although the professionals perceived that additional verbal and visual scaffolding could potentially enhance the amount of detail obtained without compromising accuracy. Suggestions for interview protocol modifications and future research are discussed.

This study examines how adults with limited expressive language (with average sentences of five words or less) respond to open-ended questions. Participants (n = 49) completed a baseline measure and were then interviewed about a personal experience using exclusively open-ended questions, followed by open-ended and directive questions about a staged event. Their interviews were coded for mean length of utterance (MLU), number of different words and six dimensions of the Narrative Assessment Profile. Descriptively, the participants were able to give some event-related detail in their narratives, but there was wide variability in narrative quality. Correlational and regression analyses indicate that their MLU was stable across contexts. The findings suggest that adults with limited expressive language can provide informative responses to open-ended questions about their experiences, and that their expressive language is likely to show stability across introductory and substantive interview phases.

Information gleaned from a patients' medical history is a core determinant of a medical diagnosis. Accurate and effective history-taking is, therefore, a foundational skill for medical practitioners and is introduced early in medical training. Recognizing and developing the skills of effective medical interviewing is an ongoing challenge for medical students and experienced clinicians alike. Important parallels exist between the information gathering skills required in medicine and health, and those required in investigative interviewing. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 19 experienced medical professionals from a range of specialty areas. They were asked about the role of the medical interview in their discipline, and about challenges they experience when gathering information from patients. Both theory-driven and grounded-theory approaches were used in combination to identify common themes. The interviews were rich with themes including approaches to introductory phases of the interview, eliciting a narrative account, and several topics that specifically paralleled issues in interviewing of vulnerable witnesses. We explore these themes through a lens of investigative interviewing by applying the knowledge of effective interviewing skills and structures to the data gained from the medical context. In general, themes indicated that there are numerous parallels to information gathering approaches in both contexts. As such, there may be scope for medical education to adopt some of the training techniques employed in the investigative interviewing field. Further, it is hoped that the present findings be used to spark an interdisciplinary conversation about communication from which both sides can learn.

Gathering information from interviewees is similar across many disciplines. Evidence-based approaches to interviewing are encouraged in criminal investigations with suspects (e.g., Swanner, Meissner, Atkinson, & Dianiska, 2016), are found in medical communication manuals (e.g., Silverman, Kurtz, & Draper, 2013), can be applied to fraud investigation (Shawyer & Walsh, 2007), and are recommended for professionals who work with children in a variety of non-criminal capacities (e.g., Brubacher, Powell, Snow, Skouteris, & Manger, 2016), to name just a few. In this issue, Meissner and Lyles (2019) provide support for best-practice interviewing in Title IX investigations. Regardless of the topic, a best-practice interview requires a core set of skills. In this commentary, we discuss the skills noted by Meissner and Lyles (2019) and add further elements that we believe relevant for consideration in Title IX investigations. We highlight our agreement with their article and explain any points of contention. Throughout, we advance two key and related viewpoints: High quality interviewing is similar across many contexts, but there is not a one-size-fits-all protocol. Instead, interview trainers should focus on teaching the elements of best practice, and in a way that promotes sustained learning. We conclude with suggestions regarding effective training and genuine engagement between academics and practitioners.

In many jurisdictions, child witness interviews are pre-recorded and played in court as complainants’ evidence-in-chief in cases of child sexual abuse (CSA). The present study examined whet...

The current study explored the effectiveness of three interview protocols on the number and specificity of details provided by minimally verbal adults about a staged repeated event. Eighty adults (with expressive sentence length of around 5 words, matched on measures of expressive language and intellectual functioning) participated in 3 live events and were pseudorandomly assigned to receive 1 of 3 interviews. The narrative-first protocol exhausted recall with open-ended questions before focused questions were asked, the intermixed protocol paired open-ended questions immediately followed by related focused questions, and the visual cues protocol mimicked the narrative-first protocol but with the use of cue cards. Overall, participants reported more correct information about the last occurrence in the intermixed and visual than narrative-first interview. The narrative-first interview elicited fewer internal intrusions (experienced details attributed to the wrong occurrence) compared with the visual, but not the intermixed, interview. Expressive language and intellectual function were positively associated with the reporting of event-related details. Providing information about repeated events was challenging for minimally verbal adults; reporting of generic event details was more frequent than occurrence-specific details, one third of participants answered a question about event frequency incorrectly (by saying they participated once), and the remaining participants provided few details about the other occurrences when directed to do so. Findings were consistent with the broader repeated event literature on children and adult witnesses recalling repeated events. This research provides guidance for investigative interviewers on how best to obtain accurate event-related information from minimally verbal adults about their experiences.

Approximately 25 years ago, special measures were adopted in many jurisdictions to support child sexual assault complainants in legal proceedings. This study tracked activities of a multi-a...

Objective: Child sexual abuse in remote Indigenous communities is prevalent and damaging, and finding solutions has been challenging. This study is an evaluation of Indigenous stakeholders’ experiences of an intervention aimed at addressing child sexual abuse in remote Indigenous communities in Western Australia. Method: Nine interviews were analysed using a thematic analysis methodology. Interviewees included family members of children who had been sexually abused, and Indigenous service providers who lived in the communities. Results: Three broad themes emerged from the analysis: communication, action and presence, and working together to address child sexual abuse. Stakeholders described how the engagement with the team was respectful and collaborative, communication and service provision were excellent and stakeholders felt that they had a strong part to play in the process. Engagement, trust, warm relationships, and excellent outcomes were strong features of this initiative. Conclusions: The operation was seen as a new way of working together, and was strongly endorsed by the Indigenous participants interviewed in this study.

Purpose: Children’s narrative accounts of their experiences are central to the prosecution of perpetrators of alleged maltreatment. We describe the narrative language skills of children who were pl...

The present study evaluated whether the strength of relationship between child nonverbal behaviors (expressivity, attention, and coordination) across time points varied as a function of interviewer nonverbal behaviors (expressivity, attention, and coordination) under supportive versus neutral interviewing conditions. Children (n = 123) participated in an event where they were involved in breaking some rules. Three to four days later they were interviewed by either a supportive or neutral adult interviewer. Interviews were video recorded and nonverbal behaviors of both children and interviewers were coded. Multi-level modeling revealed that optimal interviewer nonverbal behaviors were predictive of optimal child nonverbal behaviors at the end of the interview. In contrast, explicitly manipulated interviewer supportiveness was related to suboptimal displays of child nonverbal behavior. Interestingly, as the interview progressed, optimally attentive interviewing was associated with suboptimal child expressivity scores. Likewise, displays of optimal interviewer coordination were associated with suboptimal child coordination scores over time. The implications of the findings for nonverbal behavior literature and professionals talking with children about sensitive information are discussed.

Child witness interviews frequently comprise the central evidence in child sexual assault prosecutions. The aim of the present study was to explore the association between interview quality, interview inconsistencies raised during cross-examination, and trial outcome, while taking into account the strength of the prosecution case. Sixty-nine interviews of child complainants (56 female; aged 6–18 years) were coded for quality (proportion of open-ended questions, interviewer compliance with best-practice, and evidential categories sought). Corresponding trial transcripts were coded for indicators of case strength including number of victims and corroborating evidence (e.g., DNA, eyewitnesses). Cross-examination transcripts were coded for inconsistencies within the child witness interview or between this interview and another statement by the same complainant. After controlling for number of victims and corroborative evidence, interview quality was not associated with trial outcomes. The strongest predictor of verdict was the number of victims: the greater the number of victims, the more likely the defendant was to be convicted of at least one count. The number of inconsistencies was marginally associated with outcome: the greater the number of inconsistencies, the more likely the defendant was to be acquitted. The findings highlight the importance of examining the trial as a whole when investigating the relationship between the child witness interviews and the legal process. Future studies are necessary to replicate these findings, ideally with interviews ranging in quality on key indicators of best-practice interviewing.

Purpose Labelling (i.e., naming) individual occurrences of repeated abuse allegations with explicit and consistent terms may improve children's reporting of these offences. The aim of the present study was to track labels for occurrences of alleged child sexual abuse from the police interview to court proceedings. Methods We examined the labels used in the police interviews and trials of 23 child complainants (5–15 years old at interview). The initiator of each label (child, interviewer, lawyer, or judge), stage of the process in which the label was generated, and the type of information used to label specific occurrences of abuse were recorded. Any subsequent reuse or replacement of the labels was also recorded. Results Most labels were created by police interviewers. Few children generated labels. Most occurrences of abuse were labelled early in the legal process; 82% were first labelled either in the police interview or in the prosecution's opening statement. The labels were frequently replaced with alternate terms, with an average of three different labels for the same incident. After original labels were established for occurrences, they were just as likely to be replaced as they were to be reused. The most frequently observed label replacement was by defence lawyers during cross‐examination. Conclusions Labels were used inconsistently throughout the police interview and trial. To give children the best chance of describing specific occurrences of abuse during legal proceedings, labels should be created from children's words wherever possible and used consistently thereafter by all justice professionals.

Often, a complainant’s testimony is the central element in proving a sexual assault case, because no other physical evidence exists. The chapter focuses on three behavioral characteristics that decision makers frequently rely upon to question the validity of a complainant’s memory: Omissions and inconsistencies in the complainant’s testimony, and testimony offered with low confidence. We review the scientific research, which shows that (a) omissions and commission errors can arise from a variety of factors that are unrelated to the quality of the witness’s memory, and (b) the conditions that yield high confidence-accuracy relations (identifying an unknown attacker in a one-time assault) often do not apply in sexual assault cases (repeated offenses by a known person). We conclude that decision makers should not make reflexive judgments on the reliability of complainant recollections based on omissions, commission errors, and confidence, but to weigh the totality of evidence in the case.

Background Effective communication is at the heart of good medical practice but rates of error, patient complaints, and poor clinician job satisfaction are suggestive of room for improvement in this component of medical practice and education. Methods We conducted semi-structured interviews with experienced clinicians (n = 19) and medical students (n = 20) to explore their experiences associated with teaching and learning clinical communication skills and identify targets for improvements to addressing these skills in medical curricula. Results Interviews were thematically analysed and four key themes emerged; the importance of experience, the value of role-models, the structure of a consultation, and confidence. Conclusions The findings reinforce the need for improvement in teaching and learning communication skills in medicine, with particular opportunity to target approaches to teaching foundational skills which can establish a strong grounding before moving into more complex situations, thus preparing students for the flexibility required in medical interviewing. A second area of opportunity and need is in the engagement and training of clinicians as mentors and teachers, with the findings from both groups indicating that preparation for teaching and feedback is lacking. Medical programs can improve their teaching of communication skills and could learn from other fields s to identify applicable innovative approaches.

In 2012, one Australian state became the first jurisdiction in Australasia to introduce a scheme that allows information about registered sex offenders to be released to the public. This study seeks to better understand the impact of the scheme from the perspective of the police. An analysis of interviews with police officers responsible for the administration of the scheme is supplemented with an analysis of official data relevant to its implementation. The results provide little evidence that the concerns voiced by the police about the introduction of community notification have been realised. There is no consistent view that it has significantly increased the workload of the police responsible for its management, impacted adversely on offenders’ psychological well-being, led to vigilantism or resulted in offenders’ non-compliance with reporting obligations. The findings of this study may usefully inform the development of policy and practice in places that are considering introducing similar policies.

A properly conducted forensic interview has the greatest chance of eliciting a complete and accurate account from children about their experiences. We review the features of best practice interviews within the framework of a recent analysis of interviews from several Australian jurisdictions. Transcripts of 118 police interviews with child sexual abuse complainants were assessed on best practice measures related to: inclusion of appropriate introductory phases; use of questions that encourage narrative responding; avoidance of leading questions, nonverbal aids, and unnecessary questions. Although there were some positive features, in general the interviews were not consistent with primary criteria of a good interview. They were characterised by low proportions of open-ended prompts; high numbers of specific, leading, and developmentally inappropriate questions; complex delivery of ground rules; and the absence of open-ended practice narratives. We conclude by presenting evidence-based solutions to close the gap between knowledge of quality interviewing behaviours and putting those skills into practice.

Preschool children are particularly prone to suggestion. Here, we examined the extent to which temperament variables and internalising and externalising problems influenced preschoolers’ suggestibility. Children aged between 3 and 5 years (N = 140) completed the Video Suggestibility Scale for Children ( Scullin & Ceci, 2001 ), and their kindergarten teachers completed two questionnaires: the EAS Temperament Survey for Children, and the Child Behaviour Checklist. As expected, age and free recall performance were both negatively related to susceptibility to misleading questions. Attentional difficulty was the only individual difference variable that added predictive value to this model. None of our individual difference variables were related to the extent to which children changed their responses in the face of negative feedback. We propose that attentional difficulties might be a particularly strong correlate of suggestibility when children are very young, and we outline the implications of this finding for forensic interviewers who solicit preschoolers’ accounts.