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Schizophrenia is a complex and severe mental disorder that affects approximately 1% of the global population. It is characterized by a wide range of symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and behavior, and cognitive impairment. Recent research has suggested that the immune system dysregulation may play a significant role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, and glial cells, such as astroglia and microglia known to be involved in neuroinflammation and immune regulation, have emerged as potential players in this process. The aim of this systematic review is to summarize the glial hallmarks of schizophrenia, choosing as cellular candidate the astroglia and microglia, and focusing also on disease-associated psychological (cognitive and emotional) changes. We conducted a systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for articles that investigated the differences in astroglia and microglia in patients with schizophrenia, published in the last 5 years. The present systematic review indicates that changes in the density, morphology, and functioning of astroglia and microglia may be involved in the development of schizophrenia. The glial alterations may contribute to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia by dysregulating neurotransmission and immune responses, worsening cognitive capabilities. The complex interplay of astroglial and microglial activation, genetic/epigenetic variations, and cognitive assessments underscores the intricate relationship between biological mechanisms, symptomatology, and cognitive functioning in schizophrenia.

Abstract Aims The assessment of frailty in older adults with heart failure (HF) is still debated. Here, we compare the predictive role and the diagnostic accuracy of physical vs. multidimensional frailty assessment on mortality, disability, and hospitalization in older adults with and without HF. Methods and results A total of 1077 elderly (≥65 years) outpatients were evaluated with the physical (phy‐Fi) and multidimensional (m‐Fi) frailty scores and according to the presence or the absence of HF. Mortality, disability, and hospitalizations were assessed at baseline and after a 24 month follow‐up. Cox regression analysis demonstrated that, compared with phy‐Fi score, m‐Fi score was more predictive of mortality [hazard ratio (HR) = 1.05 vs. 0.66], disability (HR = 1.02 vs. 0.89), and hospitalization (HR = 1.03 vs. 0.96) in the absence and even more in the presence of HF (HR = 1.11 vs. 0.63, 1.06 vs. 0.98, and 1.14 vs. 1.03, respectively). The area under the curve indicated a better diagnostic accuracy with m‐Fi score than with phy‐Fi score for mortality, disability, and hospitalizations, both in absence (0.782 vs. 0.649, 0.763 vs. 0.695, and 0.732 vs. 0.666, respectively) and in presence of HF (0.824 vs. 0.625, 0.886 vs. 0.793, and 0.812 vs. 0.688, respectively). Conclusions The m‐Fi score is able to predict mortality, disability, and hospitalizations better than the phy‐Fi score, not only in absence but also in presence of HF. Our data also demonstrate that the m‐Fi score has better diagnostic accuracy than the phy‐Fi score. Thus, the use of the m‐FI score should be considered for the assessment of frailty in older HF adults.