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Horn sound levels and sound propagation along the track were investigated to understand the relationship between standardised tests at 25 metres and audibility in practice. Sound levels from a static horn above a test track decayed by 6 dB per doubling of distance (6 dB/dd) up to about 30 or 50 metres, depending on the horn height. At greater distances the level decayed by approximately 12 dB/dd. At 400 metres, the sound level from a horn 2.5 metres above the ground was about 10 dB higher than the level from the horn 0.5 metres above the ground, although the levels at 25 metres were the same. The audibility and the effective range of a horn depends on its height. At two rural mainline sites, with line speeds of 160 km/h and 200 km/h, the mean attenuation rates beyond 90 metres were 10.7 and 9.2 dB/dd respectively. At the first site, horn sound levels were highly correlated with distance. At the second site, with newer trains, horn levels were poorly correlated, suggesting some variability in horn sound levels at source. Track workers ratings of the audibility of the horns were compared to horn levels recommended by Detectsound and by ISO 7731.

The Environmental Noise Directive (2002/49/EC) requires all European Union Member States to produce strategic noise maps using a common assessment methodology: CNOSSOS-EU. The reliability of CNOSSOS-EU railway noise evaluation is dependent on the input vehicle and track transfer functions. The CNOSSOS-EU default database contains the currently available choices for these transfer functions. However, these available transfer functions are limited and of insufficient quality, resulting in large errors in noise level calculations. An approach is presented, introducing an established analytical railway rolling noise calculation technique (TWINS), to extract more reliable and specific transfer functions. A case study consisting of railway rolling noise mitigation measures is defined and used as the basis for extracting and testing these transfer functions. The extracted transfer functions reduce the average deviation between CNOSSOS-EU and reference calculations using TWINS from 6.1 dB(A) to 0.8 dB(A) in absolute sound power levels, and from 1.2 db(A) to 0.3 dB(A) in estimates of noise reduction potential for the defined mitigation measures. Application of this approach shows potential to improve the quality and depth of the existing CNOSSOS-EU default database. This may lead to more reliable estimations of railway noise in the strategic noise maps and the subsequent assessment of its harmful effects.

Aerodynamic noise from pantographs becomes an important source of noise from trains at high speeds. Previous studies have mostly been based on numerical predictions using computational aeroacoustic methods, which require large computing resources, or measurements conducted in a wind tunnel which cannot take all the real conditions into account. A component-based model relying on empirical constants obtained from the literature has been shown to predict aerodynamic noise from pantographs that agrees well with wind tunnel measurements. This model is extended in this paper by making use of simulation results on individual cylinders to refine the model constants and the Reynolds number dependence. In addition, allowance for the effect of incoming turbulence and cylinder aspect ratio is also extended. The updated model shows improved agreement with wind tunnel measurements, particularly at low frequencies. This model is then used to predict pantograph noise in more realistic conditions during train pass-by. The incoming flow conditions in terms of the incident flow speed, the turbulence intensity and the turbulence length scale are estimated from the literature considering the development of the boundary layer along the train roof. The sensitivity of the model to these assumptions is assessed using Monte Carlo simulations. The predicted results are compared with field measurements obtained using microphone array techniques for pantograph on different operational trains. Good agreement is obtained between the predictions and the measurements in terms of the far-field noise spectra and the dependence of noise level on speed. Differences are noted between measured levels for different orientations of the pantograph which according to the model are mainly related to the distance of the pantograph from the front of the train.

A number of different track forms are studied from one tramway system including tracks in ballast, on slab, and embedded rail in grass. Measurements have been carried out of rail roughness, wheel roughness and track decay rate, which are used as input data for the noise prediction model TWINS. The rail vibration and exterior noise of trams in operation have also been measured for comparison with the prediction model. The model is used to identify the relative contributions of noise radiated by the track and the wheels. The differences between different track forms are determined and the reasons for them are identified.

Aerodynamic noise induced by interaction with the air flow becomes particularly important as train speeds increase. For modern electric high-speed trains, one of the main aerodynamic noise sources is the pantograph which normally sits in a cavity on the train roof. A component-based model, based on empirical constants obtained from available literature, is applied in this paper to predict pantograph noise in realistic conditions. The predictions are compared with field measurements obtained by using a microphone array. Comparisons are made for two types of train fitted with different pantographs, running at different speeds. Good agreement of the far-field noise spectrum with the measurements are obtained for both pantographs. The individual contributions from the panhead and knee-joint are analysed. The dominant source is found at the panhead whereas the knee-joint is of less importance. In addition, through the model, a detailed component spectral analysis is presented for the first pantograph.

Tramway noise can be significant even though the speeds are relatively low. The influence of track design on the rolling noise is studied through a systematic comparison of different tracks on a single network. These include a slab track with embedded sleeper blocks, a ballasted track and a track with embedded rails. Measurements have been taken of rail vibration and noise during tram passages at approximately 55 km/h; the rail and wheel roughness have also been measured. Comparisons are made in terms of track decay rate, rail vibration and pass-by noise. After normalising to the same roughness, the slab track is found to be the noisiest and the ballasted track the quietest. Theoretical models of the various track forms are also presented to give insight into the differences in acoustic performance. The models allow the relative contributions of the track and wheels to the pass-by noise to be identified. In addition the effect of rail dampers added to the slab track is assessed. These attenuate the noise at higher frequencies due to the increase in decay rate, but an increase in radiation is noted at 500 Hz and below, possibly linked to differences in effective roughness.

A numerical model is presented for the ground-borne vibration produced by trains running in tunnels. The model makes use of the assumption that the geometry and material properties are invariant in the axial direction. It is based on the so-called two-and-a-half dimensional (2.5D) coupled Finite Element and Boundary Element methodology, in which a two-dimensional cross-section is discretised into finite elements and boundary elements and the third dimension is represented by a Fourier transform over wavenumbers. The model is applied to a particular case of a metro line built with a cast-iron tunnel lining. An equivalent continuous model of the tunnel is developed to allow it to be readily implemented in the 2.5D framework. The tunnel structure and the track are modelled using solid and beam finite elements while the ground is modelled using boundary elements. The 2.5D track-tunnel-ground model is coupled with a train consisting of several vehicles, which are represented by multi-body models. The response caused by the passage of a train is calculated as the sum of the dynamic component, excited by the combined rail and wheel roughness, and the quasi-static component, induced by the constant moving axle loads. Field measurements have been carried out to provide experimental validation of the model. These include measurements of the vibration of the rail, the tunnel invert and the tunnel wall. In addition, simultaneous measurements were made on the ground surface above the tunnel. Rail roughness and track characterisation measurements were also made. The prediction results are compared with measured vibration obtained during train passages, with good agreement.

The dynamic properties of a railway track are important for both the generation of rolling noise and the development of rail corrugation. A conventional track consists of long rails mounted periodically on transverse sleepers and supported in ballast. In order to improve the predictions of the noise and vibration of the track, a model of a discretely supported track is proposed based on the so-called 2.5 dimensional (2.5D) finite element approach, which is used to model an infinite free rail. This is coupled to a finite number of sleepers, by means of an array of springs representing each rail pad, using a receptance coupling method. The sleepers are represented by flexible beams, supported on an elastic foundation. Results are presented in terms of the point mobility and track decay rate and these are compared with the corresponding field measurements for two tracks, one with soft rail pads and one with stiff rail pads. Very good agreement is found between the predictions and the measurement results, especially for the track with soft rail pads. The flexible sleeper model is shown to give improved results compared with a rigid mass model, especially for the track with stiff rail pads.

Tracks with rails embedded in a layer of rubber are commonly used for tramways. The vibration and sound radiation behaviour of these tracks differs from that of conventional railway tracks. This is studied here using coupled wavenumber finite element and boundary element models. A detailed analysis is carried out for an embedded rail with a narrow embedding material and comparisons are made with field measurements. The rail, embedding material and surrounding concrete are modelled with finite elements, whereas the support conditions due to the underlying ground are modelled with structural boundary elements coupled to the base of the track model. The sound radiation is calculated using a wavenumber acoustic boundary element model in which it is assumed that there is only one-way coupling with the structure. At low frequencies, vibration of the concrete slab also contributes to the noise radiation. Consequently, the radiated sound is increased compared with that produced by the rail alone at low frequencies but it is reduced above 300 Hz, where the rail and concrete vibrate out of phase with one another; at frequencies above 500 Hz the concrete has negligible effect. The track decay rate has a broad minimum between 500 and 1000 Hz; the noise radiation therefore has a peak in this important frequency region. However, the decay rate increases strongly above 1000 Hz due to the influence of the embedding material. The track considered has a grass in-fill between and outside the rails and allowing for the absorptive effect of the grass leads to a small reduction in the sound radiation. In addition, the attenuation effect of the fairings around the bogie region is estimated taking account of the absorptive effect of the grass surface. The embedded rail models are coupled with a model of a tram wheel and used to predict the rolling noise during the passage of a tram, showing good agreement with field measurements. Finally, various alternative embedded rail designs are compared, including different shapes of the embedding material and different rail profiles. Differences of up to 3 dB are found between the various designs.

Conventional railway tracks are laid in a layer of crushed stone known as ballast which contributes to the resilience of the track support. Beneath it is the subgrade which also has a considerable influence on the track support stiffness. Although quasi-static measurements of track stiffness are reasonably common, the dynamic stiffness at higher frequencies is required for noise and vibration modelling. Here, a distinction is made between the dynamic stiffness of the ballast layer itself and the dynamic support stiffness which includes the underlying ground. The dynamic transfer stiffness of a ballast layer is required for ground vibration and bridge noise predictions. Two different methods for measuring this are presented, one in the laboratory and the other in the field. The laboratory method is limited to a maximum frequency of about 600 Hz due to limitations of the test rig. The field measurement, which relies on identifying the wavespeed within the medium, gives results up to 2 kHz. These methods give broadly consistent results, with a stiffness per rail seat for a 300 mm thick ballast layer of approximately 300–500 MN/m, increasing in proportion to the square root of the preload, and a damping loss factor in the range 0.15–0.3. The corresponding Young's modulus is between 200 and 700 MPa, depending on the preload. The dynamic stiffness increases above about 300 Hz with a first peak due to standing wave effects occurring at about 700 Hz. The dynamic support stiffness beneath the sleeper, on the other hand, is required for rolling noise modelling. This has been measured using two methods: a direct method for frequencies 50–500 Hz and an indirect method based on a modal analysis of a sleeper embedded in the ballast. A clear shift in natural frequencies is seen which is associated with the support stiffness. This support stiffness is strongly frequency-dependent, with the value per rail seat increasing from about 100 to 200 MN/m at 100 Hz to 2000 MN/m at 1 kHz. The support damping corresponds to a loss factor of around 1 for frequencies above 200 Hz, or a damping coefficient of 100–200 kN/m per rail seat. This damping is due to the radiation of energy into the ground rather than internal losses in the ballast. It strongly affects the modal damping of the sleeper and thus its radiated noise. The dynamic support stiffness increases roughly in proportion to the cube root of the preload. Comparison with a finite element model indicates that the underlying ground is responsible for the support stiffness and damping at low frequencies. However, above about 500 Hz it is independent of the ground and is only affected by the ballast layer. The results from the finite element model imply behaviour similar to a viscous damper. The sleeper vibration obtained using either a viscous damping or a constant loss factor is similar.

Rolling noise from running trains is significantly influenced by the wheel–rail combined roughness and the dynamic properties of the track. To facilitate predictions of vibration and noise, it is desirable to be able to determine these parameters accurately from field measurements. In this study, an inverse method for the determination of these parameters is adopted and enhanced. A track model that is based on a wavenumber finite element model of the free rail coupled to discrete supports, which allows for the pinned–pinned mode and cross–sectional deformation of the rail, has been used. The rail vibration induced by hammer impacts and the vibration during train passages are simulated using this model, and these results are then applied to illustrate the accuracy of the direct and indirect methods for the estimation of track decay rate. These methods are compared in a case study for a ballasted track for which hammer impact and train pass–by measurements have been obtained. Other track parameters can also be extracted from the measured data by using the advanced track model. Thereafter, a more complete method is adopted to estimate the wheel–rail combined roughness from the measured rail vibration under train passages. A comparison is made among the estimated roughness levels obtained from this full method, an existing simplified method and the direct measurement method. It is found that the simplified method overestimates the roughness around the pinned–pinned resonance frequency, but gives a good estimation if the track decay rates of the loaded track are used.

Rail dampers work by increasing the attenuation with distance of vibration transmitted along the rail, a quantity known as the track decay rate. Currently, there are no standardized procedures to measure their effectiveness in reducing rolling noise without the need for in-track installation and time-consuming tests. This paper describes and evaluates experimental procedures for assessing rail dampers. Instead of field measurements it is proposed to use laboratory measurements of vertical and lateral decay rates on a free rail equipped with dampers. These are combined with in-situ measurements on an undamped track. The decay rates of a damped track can be approximated by adding the results of the damped free rail to those of the undamped track.Three different methods are studied to measure the decay rates of damped free rails: (i) using a long rail, in the present work 32 m long, from frequency response functions measured at intervals along the rail; (ii) using a short rail, in the present work 6 m long, from the modal properties of the rail; and (iii) directly from the point and transfer frequency response functions at both ends of the short rail. The latter two are complementary: the modal method is more suited to low frequencies while the direct method is more suited to high frequencies. These methods are evaluated theoretically and by comparison with experimental results.Good agreement is found between the various methods, for vibration in both vertical and lateral directions, between 300 Hz and 5 kHz. In practice, the direct short-rail method is likely to be sufficient for most applications. The limitations of the methods are identified and corrections are proposed for the effect of near-field waves in the rail

Background and objective The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that preterm infants complete a predischarge 'car seat challenge' observation for cardiorespiratory compromise while in a car seat. This static challenge does not consider the more upright position in a car or the vibration of the seat when the car is moving. This pilot study was designed to assess the cardiorespiratory effects of vibration, mimicking the effect of being in a moving car, on preterm and term infants. Methods A simulator was designed to reproduce vertical vibration similar to that in a rear-facing car seat at 30 mph. 19 healthy newborn term and 21 preterm infants, ready for hospital discharge, underwent cardiorespiratory measurements while lying flat in a cot (baseline), static in the seat (30°), simulator (40°) and during motion (vibration 40°). Results Median test age was 13 days (range 1-65 days) and median weight was 2.5 kg (IQR: 2.1-3.1 kg). Compared with baseline observations, only the total number of desaturations was significantly increased when infants were placed at 30° (p=0.03). At 40°, or with vibration, respiratory and heart rates increased and oxygen saturation decreased significantly. Profound desaturations Conclusions This is the first study to assess the effect of motion on infants seated in a car safety seat. Term and preterm infants showed significant signs of potentially adverse cardiorespiratory effects in the upright position at 40°, particularly with simulated motion, not identified in the standard challenge. A larger study is required to investigate the significance of these results.

The sport of Skeleton involves the headfirst decent on a Bobsleigh ice track, whereby an athlete lies face forward on a sled with two runners. The athlete steers by applying reactive control movements with his or her shoulders and knees. There is a limited understanding of how these control movements effect the sled direction (yaw), which currently restricts advances in sled design. These limitations exist due to a lack of understanding at the ice-runner interaction contact point. Without knowing exactly how the runners create friction and why, runner design and athlete control is misunderstood. This paper discusses the measurement and analysis of on-track recorded data of various sled motion, forces and steering input parameters. These parameters have been used to develop an empirical ‘steering’ model, with the integration of athlete steering forces to determine sled reaction and response from steering input. Validation of the model shows a good relationship between real and approximated sled yaw throughout the descent. Such a model gives an insight into which forces are the primary cause of sled direction change and therefore how best to manipulate and change such forces to maximise control for the athlete. Future work includes validation of various runner friction coefficients so that control of different runners can be explored.

A trench can act as a barrier to ground vibration and is a potential mitigation measure for low frequency vibration induced by surface railways. However, to be effective at very low frequencies the depth required becomes impractical. Nevertheless, for soil with a layered structure in the top few metres, if a trench can be arranged to cut through the upper, soft layer of soil, it can be effective in reducing the most important components of vibration from the trains. This study considers the possibility of using such a realistically feasible solution. Barriers containing a soft fill material are also considered. The study uses coupled finite element / boundary element models expressed in terms of the axial wavenumber. It is found to be important to include the track in the model as this determines how the load is distributed at the soil's surface which significantly affects the insertion loss of the barrier. Calculations are presented for a range of typical layered grounds in which the depth of the upper soil layer is varied. Variations in the width and depth of the trench or barrier are also considered. The results show that, in all ground conditions considered, the notional rectangular open trench performs best. The depth is the most important parameter whereas the width has only a small influence on its performance. More practical arrangements are also considered in which the sides of the trench are angled. Barriers consisting of a soft fill material are shown to be much less effective than an open trench but still have some potential benefit. It is found that the stiffness of the barrier material and not its impedance is the most important material parameter. 2016 Elsevier Ltd. The results presented in this paper have been obtained within the EU FP7 project RIVAS (Railway Induced Vibration Abatement Solutions) under grant agreement No. 26575 . The project coordinator was UIC (International Union of Railways). The sixth and seventh authors are post-doctoral fellows of the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO). The financial support is gratefully acknowledged. All data published in this paper are openly available from the University of Southampton repository at http://dx.doi.org/10.5258/SOTON/394807 . Scopus

The most common injuries experienced by sweep rowers relate to the lower back; rowers with greater core strength have been shown to be less prone to these injuries. Stationary rowing trainers (Ergometers) currently used for training and rehabilitation generally have a fixed support base, contrary to a real boat. It is hypothesized that training with an unstable base may help develop core strength in athletes. This paper describes early development of a rowing simulator with a realistic unstable platform. Using SolidWorks, a conceptual motion simulator was designed, which was then linked to MATLAB/Simulink to produce a controllable simulation of rowing. A control algorithm was developed to compute the forces and virtual rowing parameters required. The algorithm uses a PID controller to maintain a coordinate position of the virtual boat's centre of gravity. In particular, the issue of creating an “unstable” feeling about the roll axis was developed. Comparison between the simulated output and real rowing data is required for verification of effective control. The resultant control system could be linked to a real-time motion platform, whereby EMG and or other biometric measurements could be used to determine the effectiveness of core muscle activation between the simulator, Ergometer and on water rowing.

The transmission of vibration through a seat depends on the impedance of the seat and the apparent mass of the seat occupant. This study was designed to determine how factors affecting the apparent mass of the body (age, gender, physical characteristics, backrest contact, and magnitude of vibration) affect seat transmissibility. The transmission of vertical vibration through a car seat was measured with 80 adults (41 males and 39 females aged 18–65) at frequencies between 0.6 and 20 Hz with two backrest conditions (no backrest and backrest), and with three magnitudes of random vibration (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 m s-2 rms). Linear regression models were used to study the effects of subject physical characteristics (age, gender, and anthropometry) and features of their apparent mass (resonance frequency, apparent mass at resonance and at 12 Hz) on the measured seat transmissibility. The strongest predictor of both the frequency of the principal resonance in seat transmissibility and the seat transmissibility at resonance was subject age, with other factors having only marginal effects. The transmissibility of the seat at 12 Hz depended on subject age, body mass index, and gender. Although subject weight was strongly associated with apparent mass, weight was not strongly associated with seat transmissibility. The resonance frequency of the seat decreased with increases in the magnitude of the vibration excitation and increased when subjects made contact with the backrest. Inter-subject variability in the resonance frequency and transmissibility at resonance was less with greater vibration excitation, but was largely unaffected by backrest contact. A lumped parameter seat–person model showed that changes in seat transmissibility with age can be predicted from changes in apparent mass with age, and that the dynamic stiffness of the seat appeared to increase with increased loading so as to compensate for increases in subject apparent mass associated with increased sitting weight.

The transmission of vibration through a seat depends on various characteristics of the seat and the dynamic response of the human body. The dynamic response of the body can be represented by its apparent mass, but the effect of the seat on the apparent mass of the body is not well understood. This study was designed to quantify the effect of foam and rigid backrests on the vertical apparent mass of the human measured at the seat surface supporting the body. The apparent masses of 12 subjects were measured during exposure to random vertical vibration (1.0 ms−2 rms from 0.125 to 40 Hz) in a seat with a rigid backrest, in the same rigid seat with three thicknesses of foam backrest (50, 100 and 150 mm), and in the same seat with no backrest. The backrests were inclined at various angles: 0°, 5°, 10°, 15°, 20°, 25° and 30° for the rigid and 100 mm foam backrests, and 0°, 10°, 20° and 30° for the 50 and 150 mm foam backrests. With all vertical backrests (i.e., 0° inclination), there were resonances in the apparent mass of the body around 5 and 10 Hz. With no backrest, the apparent mass was increased at frequencies less than the resonance frequency but decreased at frequencies between 8 and 20 Hz, relative to the apparent mass with the vertical rigid and foam backrests. With the rigid backrest, the primary resonance frequencies in the apparent mass increased with increasing backrest inclination. With the foam backrests, the resonance frequencies decreased with increasing backrest inclination. At frequencies less than the primary resonance, the apparent mass decreased with increasing backrest inclination, particularly with the rigid backrest. Between 8 and 15 Hz, the apparent mass decreased with increasing inclination, most notably with the foam backrests. At inclinations less than 30°, there was little effect of foam thickness on the apparent mass, but at 30° an increase in the thickness of the foam decreased the frequency of the first resonances. Since contact with backrests and the characteristics of backrests influence the vertical apparent mass of the seated body, backrests should be expected to influence the transmission of vertical vibration through a supporting seat cushion.

Wheel roughness measurements available from several different campaigns are presented in terms of average levels and dispersion. The dependence on factors such as brake type and whether the wheel is powered or trailing is also addressed. A method to decide how many wheels from a train are to be measured is then presented. Finally, the main outcomes are described from a round robin test aimed at assessing the effect on wheel roughness measurements of adopting different equipment, used independently by different teams.

Railway-induced ground vibration is often associated with sites with soft ground. Stiffening of the subgrade beneath the railway track is one particular measure that has potential to reduce the vibration level at such sites. However, the mechanisms behind this reduction are not well understood. Here, the effects are examined in the context of two alternative approaches: (i) subgrade stiffening, where the soil directly under the track is stiffened, and (ii) stiff inclusions introduced at some depth beneath the track, sometimes known as 'wave impeding blocks'. The efficacy of the measures is considered for different ground types in a parametric study carried out using a 2.5D coupled finite-element/boundary-element methodology. The soil is considered to consist of a soft upper layer over a stiffer substratum; corresponding homogeneous grounds are also considered. With a 6. m wide, 1. m thick, concrete block directly under the track, the vibration between 16 and 50. Hz was found to be reduced by between 4 and 10. dB for ground with a 3. m deep soft upper layer. For a deeper soft layer the reductions were greater whereas, for a stiffer ground without the soft upper layer, the reductions in vibration from this block were negligible. Slightly smaller reductions in a similar frequency region were observed when the block was positioned 1. m below the surface, suggesting that, as with stiffening directly under the track, the reduction in vibration was primarily due to the increase of the effective stiffness of the soil beneath the track rather than the effective creation of a new, thinner soil layer. Jet grouting is considered as an alternative to concrete and, although it is found to be less effective due to its comparatively low stiffness, it may still be considered as a practical measure for existing tracks on soft soil sites. The reduction in vibration from this form of soil improvement with a depth of 3. m is similar to that for a 1. m thick concrete block. Finally, results are presented for three example sites with different soil properties which show similar trends. EU FP7 project RIVAS (Railway Induced Vibration Abatement Solutions) under Grant Agreement no. 26575. The fifth and sixth authors are post-doctoral fellows of the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO). Scopus

The stiffness and damping of railpads in a railway track are affected by changes in the temperature of the surrounding environment. This results in the rolling noise radiated by trains increasing as the temperature increases. This paper quantifies this effect for a ballasted track equipped with natural rubber railpads and also studies the behaviour of a cork-reinforced rubber railpad. By means of measurements in a temperature-controlled environment, it is shown that the shear modulus of the natural rubber increases by a factor of six when the temperature is reduced from 40 ℃ to −20 ℃. The loss factor increases from 0.15 at 40 ℃ to 0.65 at −20 ℃. The shear modulus of the cork-reinforced rubber increases by a factor of 10, and the loss factor shows the typical trend of transition between rubbery and glassy regions. The railpad stiffness estimated from decay rate measurements at different temperatures is shown to follow the same trend. Field measurements of the noise from passing trains are performed for temperatures between 0 ℃ and 35 ℃; they show an increase of about 3–4 dB. Similar results are obtained from predictions of noise using the measured dependence of pad stiffness.

To reduce railway induced low frequency vibration, two mitigation measures - open trenches and buried soft wall barriers have been studied in this paper by using coupled finite element-boundary element models. These models were developed at KU Leuven and ISVR, and have been cross-validated within the EU FP7 project RIVAS (Railway Induced Vibration Abatement Solutions). Variations in the width, depth, location of trench and properties of soft barrier material are considered under various soil conditions. Results show that in all ground conditions, the notional rectangular open trench performs better than the other constructions. The width of an open trench has little influence on its performance, whereas increasing the width of a filled trench reduces the stiffness of the barrier, improving the performance of the trench. Likewise, fill materials with lower Young’s modulus give higher insertion losses.

The biodynamic responses of the seated human body to whole-body vibration vary considerably between people, but the reasons for the variability are not well understood. This study was designed to determine how the physical characteristics of people affect their apparent mass and whether inter-subject variability is influenced by the magnitude of vibration and the support of a seat backrest. The vertical apparent masses of 80 seated adults (41 males and 39 females aged 18–65) were measured at frequencies between 0.6 and 20 Hz with four backrest conditions (no backrest, upright rigid backrest, reclined rigid backrest, reclined foam backrest) and with three magnitudes of random vibration (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 m s -2 rms). Relationships between subject physical characteristics (age, gender, weight, and anthropometry) and subject apparent mass were investigated with multiple regression models. The strongest predictor of the modulus of the vertical apparent mass at 0.6 Hz, at resonance, and at 12 Hz was body weight, with other factors having only a marginal effect. After correction for other variables, the principal resonance frequency was most consistently associated with age and body mass index. As age increased from 18 to 65 years, the resonance frequency increased by up to 1.7 Hz, and when the body mass index was increased from 18 to 34 kg m −2 the resonance frequency decreased by up to 1.7 Hz. These changes were greater than the 0.9-Hz increase in resonance frequency between sitting without a backrest and sitting with a reclined rigid backrest, and greater than the 1.0-Hz reduction in resonance frequency when the magnitude of vibration increased from 0.5 to 1.5 m s −2 rms. It is concluded that the effects of age, body mass index, posture, vibration magnitude, and weight should be taken into account when defining the vertical apparent mass of the seated human body.

Models of the vertical apparent mass of the human body are mostly restricted to a sitting posture unsup- ported by a backrest and ignore the variations in apparent mass associated with changes in posture and changes in the magnitude of vibration. Using findings from experimental research, this study fitted a single degree-of-freedom lumped parameter model to the measured vertical apparent mass of the body measured with a range of sitting postures and vibration magnitudes. The resulting model reflects the effects of reclining a rigid backrest or reclining a foam backrest (from 0 to 30 degrees), the effects of moving the hands from the lap to a steering wheel, the effects of moving the hori- zontal position of the feet, and the effects of vibration magnitude (from 0.125 to 1.6 ms -2 r.m.s.). The error between the modelled and the measured apparent mass was minimised, for both the apparent masses of individual subjects and the median apparent masses of groups of 12 subjects, for each sitting posture and each vibration magnitude. Trends in model parameters, the damping ratios, and the damped natural frequencies were identified as a function of the model variables and show the effects of posture and vibration magnitude on body dynamics. For example, contact with a rigid backrest increased the derived damped natural frequency of the principal resonance as a result of reduced moving mass and increased stiffness. When the rigid backrest was reclined from 0 to 30°, the damping decreased and the resonance frequency increased as a result of reduced moving mass. It is concluded that, by appropriate variations in model param- eters, a single degree-of-freedom model can provide a useful fit to the vertical apparent mass of the human body over a wide range of postures and vibration magnitudes. When measuring or modelling seat transmissibility, it may be difficult to justify an apparent mass model with more than a single degree-of-freedom if it does not reflect the large influences of vibration magnitude, body posture, and individual variability.

The apparent mass of the seated human body influences the vibration transmitted through a car seat. The apparent mass of the body is known to be influenced by sitting posture but the influence of the position of the hands and the feet is not well understood. This study was designed to quantify the influence of steering wheel location and the position of a footrest on the vertical apparent mass of the human body. The influences of the forces applied by the hands to a steering wheel and by the feet to a footrest were also investigated. Twelve subjects were exposed to whole-body vertical random vibration (1.0 m s −2 rms over the frequency range 0.13–40.0 Hz) while supported by a rigid seat with a backrest reclined to 15°. The apparent mass of the body was measured with five horizontal positions and three vertical positions of a steering wheel and also with hands in the lap, and with five horizontal positions of a footrest. The influence of five forward forces (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 N) applied separately to the ‘steering wheel’ and the footrest were also investigated as well as a ‘no backrest’ condition. With their hands in their laps, subjects exhibited a resonance around 6.7 Hz, compared to 4.8 Hz when sitting upright with no backrest. In the same posture holding a steering wheel, the mass supported on the seat surface decreased and there was an additional resonance at 4 Hz. Moving the steering wheel away from the body reduced the apparent mass at the primary resonance frequency and increased the apparent mass around the 4 Hz resonance. As the feet moved forward, the mass supported on the seat surface decreased, indicating that the backrest and footrest supported a greater proportion of the subject weight. Applying force to either the steering wheel or the footrest reduced the apparent mass at resonance and decreased the mass supported on the seat surface. It is concluded that the positions and contact conditions of the hands and the feet affect the biodynamic response of the body in a car driving posture. As the biodynamic response influences the vibration transmitted through seats, these factors should be considered in dynamic models of vehicle seating.

Introduction The AAP recommends preterm infants undergo a “car seat challenge” before discharge, to observe for any differences in cardiorespiratory function whilst seated in a car seat compared to lying flat in a cot. The infant can be discharged if there is no compromise. This static (30°) challenge does not take into account the more vertical positioning of the seat or effects of vibration when it is secured in a moving vehicle. Aim To investigate the effect of vibration, mimicking that experienced in a moving car, on cardio-respiratory function, compared to the standard challenge. Methods A novel simulator was designed to represent the vibrations felt in a rear facing car seat during a normal urban cycle. 40 term & preterm babies, ready for discharge after birth, were recruited. The babies were their own control. Observations of heart & respiratory rates, saturation & end tidal CO2 levels were recorded flat in a cot, static in the seat (30°) & simulator (40°) & during vibration (motion). Results 19 term & 21 preterm infants were tested; 22 were male (55%). Gestation range was 25+2 weeks to 41+5 weeks (median 35+5). Median birthweight was 2.5 kg (range 0.8 kg to 4.8 kg). Age at testing was 1 to 65 days (median 13 days). There were no significant differences in outcome variables for infants in the cot & 30° position. However, compared to rest, in the static 40° position infants had significantly faster heartbeats, lower oxygen saturation & higher respiratory rates. When in motion these differences persisted & the number of desaturations below 85% were significantly higher. Conclusions Testing all infants at 30° would suggest they could travel. However both term & preterm babies showed signs of cardio-respiratory distress in the 40° position with a significant increase in profound desaturations during motion, which were underestimated by the standard challenge. A larger study is required to confirm these results. This may lead to revision of the current car seat challenge or the design of infant car seats.