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The “Planetary Atmospheres and Surfaces Chamber” (PASC, at Centro de Astrobiología, INTA, Madrid) is able to simulate the atmosphere and surface temperature of most of the solar system planets. PASC is especially appropriate to study irradiation induced changes of geological, chemical, and biological samples under a wide range of controlled atmospheric and temperature conditions. Therefore, PASC is a valid method to test the resistance potential of extremophile organisms under diverse harsh conditions and thus assess the habitability of extraterrestrial environments. In the present study, we have investigated the resistance of a symbiotic organism under simulated Mars conditions, exemplified with the lichen Circinaria gyrosa—an extremophilic eukaryote. After 120 hours of exposure to simulated but representative Mars atmosphere, temperature, pressure and UV conditions; an unaltered photosynthetic performance demonstrated high resistance of the lichen photobiont., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Gobierno de España, Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial, Depto. de Farmacología, Farmacognosia y Botánica, Fac. de Farmacia, TRUE, pub

Several space missions from NASA, and ESA have visited and will land on Mars in the search for life. The last mission to arrive was the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover on 18 February 2021. The next mission to Mars will be ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover, expected to touch down sometime after 2028. Both Mars2020 and ExoMars are equipped with Raman spectroscopic systems: SuperCam and SHERLOC on Perseverance, and Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) on Rosalind Franklin (RF). These instruments will be tasked with identifying rocks, minerals, and potential organic biosignatures on the Martian surface. There are many challenges associated with the qualitative and quantitative analysis of resulting data received from current missions on Mars. It is our belief that studies of new terrestrial Martian analogues can help to overcome these challenges. Here, we introduce Chã das Caldeiras Outcrop, Fogo Island, Cabo Verde as a new volcanic terrestrial analog for Mars. We sampled several areas of relevance in Chã das Caldeiras and conducted a complete band analysis of Raman spectra for targets from this site. Additional analyses included ATR-FTIR and XRD. We detected several pyroxene types (augite and diopside) and plagioclase feldspar species (orthoclase, bytownite, sanidine, albite, and anorthite), olivine (forsterite), oxides (magnetite), and leucite. The alteration and secondary minerals detected were carbonates (calcite and dolomite), oxides (goethite, anatase, and hematite), spinel (chromite), phosphate (apatite), various clays, and zeolites (chabazite and muscovite and analcime). We present the Chã das Caldeiras site as a possible new volcanic analogue for Mars given: 1) the similarities to other volcanic places in the Canary Islands; 2) the exclusive geological evolution that is only present in the volcanic emplacement from the Macaronecia-group; 3) the pristine quality of the samples from the outcrop as well as the alteration volcanic minerals.

The Renaissance was a human time period in which culture stood out as a common whole. It was based on a humanistic and integrative cosmovision of mankind in the framework of nature and the universe. This article synthetically describes and analyses the relationships between Art and Geology through three exceptional and illustrative Renaissance figures: Leonardo da Vinci, Albert Dürer and Georgius Agricola. In the first two, making an approach from Art to Geology and in the latter, from Geology to Art. Leonardo is, unquestionably, the quintessential polymath and a pio-neer, among other areas of knowledge, in geology and geosciences. His global contributions will be described using his own phrases, writings, drawings and paintings. In the case of Dürer, his famous work, Melancholy I, will be the main focus of study, specifically with reference to the mi-neralogical hypothesis regarding his enigmatic polyhedron. Thirdly, Agricola will be uncovered through his famous work, “De Re Metallica”. He was a scientist and an engineer, but also a pioneer in geology and mineralogy who used drawings to complement his geoscientific contributions. Finally, this Renaissance thematic connection will be compared to today’s world situation. It has been suggested that Digital Age could correspond to a new period similar to the Renaissance, where innovation and creativity merging Art, Science and Technology, would be enhanced and benefited from a context of global education and communication.

Mineralogical studies constitute one of the main tools to investigate geological processes on Mars. Here, the mineralogy of the ExoMars landing sites Oxia Planum and Mawrth Vallis is analysed based on multispectral datasets of the CRISM Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, TES Thermal Emission Spectrometer of Mars Global Surveyor and OMEGA Visible and Infrared Mineralogical Mapping Spectrometer of Mars Express are integrated and interpreted. Primary and secondary minerals of carbonates, oxides, silicates and sulphates mineral groups are characterized, with most minerals produced by aqueous alteration, with 35 mineral species identified, amongst which phyllosilicates are the dominant group. Coexisting mineral types point to distinct hydrothermal and alteration stages. Our investigation supports that water must have been present on early Mars on superficial and endogenous processes, causing direct precipitation and transformations of secondary minerals, with some not usually formed simultaneously. Hence, it is likely that species may have arisen at different times, due to changes of Martian climate. Some minerals may have formed in the subsurface. The Martian palaeoenvironments might include subaerial, underwater, and shallow subsurface hydrothermal systems, cold springs, alkaline lakes, sabkhas, and playas. Our results contribute to our understanding of the planned landing sites to prepare for what the ExoMars rover mission may encounter, highlighting the impact that water may have had on the mineral genesis, alteration processes and their astrobiological potential.

In this work, a geological sample of great astrobiological interest was studied through analytical techniques that are currently operating in situ on Mars and others that will operate in the near future. The sample analyzed consisted of an oncoid, which is a type of microbialite, collected in the Salar Carachi Pampa, Argentina. The main peculiarity of microbialites is that they are organo-sedimentary deposits formed by the in situ fixation and precipitation of calcium carbonate due to the growth and metabolic activities of microorganisms. For this reason, the Carachi Pampa oncoid was selected as a Martian analog for astrobiogeochemistry study. In this sense, the sample was characterized by means of the PIXL-like, SuperCam-like and SHERLOC-like instruments, which represent instruments on board the NASA Perseverance rover, and by means of RLS-like and MOMA-like instruments, which represent instruments on board the future ESA Rosalind Franklin rover. It was possible to verify that the most important conclusions and discoveries have been obtained from the combination of the results. Likewise, it was also shown that Perseverance rover-like remote-sensing instruments allowed a first detailed characterization of the biogeochemistry of the Martian surface. With this first characterization, areas of interest for in-depth analysis with Rosalind Franklin-like instruments could be identified. Therefore, from a first remote-sensing elemental identification (PIXL-like instrument), followed by a remote-sensing molecular characterization (SuperCam and SHERLOC-like instruments) and ending with an in-depth microscopic analysis (RLS and MOMA-like instruments), a wide variety of compounds were found. On the one hand, the expected minerals were carbonates, such as aragonite, calcite and high-magnesium calcite. On the other hand, unexpected compounds consisted of minerals related to the Martian/terrestrial surface (feldspars, pyroxenes, hematite) and organic compounds related to the past

So far, we do not know of a place on Earth which is truly like Mars or any other planet of moon in our solar system. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify terrestrial analogue sites, where environmental conditions approximate, in some specific ways, those possibly encountered on other celestial bodies, at present or earlier in their geological history [1]. These sites are also privileged areas to define scientific models and testing new instrumentation, paving the way for understanding lunar and planetary processes and habitability and paleohabitability conditions. There are many relevant sites on earth which have confirmed to be extremely useful for these purposes (e.g. Antarctica, Atacama (Chile), Pilbara (Australia), Iceland, and, also, Spain, due to its internationally recognized geodiversity (e.g. Río Tinto, Jaroso, Calatrava Volcanic Field and Canary Islands, among others). The Canary Archipelago (Spain) is one of the main and most geodiverse and interesting chain of oceanic islands worldwide, displaying a long history of eruptions (the two last ones, in 2011 and 2021, at El Hierro and La Palma islands, respectively), and a huge variety of volcanic and plutonic rocks. The islands are dominated by basaltic rocks, but show a great petrologic and geochemical diversity including melilitites, nephelinites, basanites, tholeiitic and alkali basalts, tephrites, rhyodacites, rhyolites, pantellerites, comendites, trachytes, phonolites and carbonatites [2]. Several areas of the Canary archipelago have been (and still are) used as analogue sites for performing scientific and engineering studies, in relation with the exploration and research of Mars and the Moon. They include: a. geological and astrobiological studies of volcanic rocks, rock-fluid interactions and mineralization processes; b. operational and instrumentation activities, such as field testing of rovers and the use of portable spectroscopic prototypes (e.g. Raman); c. the use of volcanic materials (e.g. ba

The Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) have a unique ecosystem on Earth due to their outstanding biodiversity and geological features. This also extends to their subterranean heritage, such as volcanic caves, with plenty of secondary mineral deposits, including coralloid-type speleothems and moonmilk deposits. In this study, the bacterial communities associated with speleothems from two lava tubes of Santa Cruz Island were investigated. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) was carried out for the morphological characterization and detection of microbial features associated with moonmilk and coralloid speleothems from Bellavista and Royal Palm Caves. Microbial cells, especially filamentous bacteria in close association with extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), were abundant in both types of speleothems. Furthermore, reticulated filaments and Actinobacteria-like cells were observed by FESEM. The analysis of 16S rDNA revealed the presence of different bacterial phylotypes, many of them associated with the carbon, nitrogen, iron and sulfur cycles, and some others with pollutants. This study gives insights into subsurface microbial diversity of the Galapagos Islands and further shows the interest of the conservation of these subterranean geoheritage sites used as show caves

The SuperCam instrument, onboard the Perseverance rover (Mars 2020 mission) is designed to perform remote analysis on the Martian surface employing several spectroscopic techniques such as Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), Time-Resolved Raman (TRR), Time-Resolved Fluorescence (TRF) and Visible and Infrared (VISIR) reflectance. In addition, SuperCam also acquires high-resolution images using a color remote micro-imager (RMI) as well as sounds with its microphone. SuperCam has three main subsystems, the Mast Unit (MU) where the laser for chemical analysis and collection optics are housed, the Body Unit (BU) where the different spectrometers are located inside the rover, and the SuperCam Calibration Target (SCCT) located on the rover's deck to facilitate calibration tests at similar ambient conditions as the analyzed samples. To perform adequate calibrations on Mars, the 22 mineral samples included in the complex SCCT assembly must have a very homogeneous distribution of major and minor elements. The analysis and verification of such homogeneity for the 5¿6 replicates of the samples included in the SCCT has been the aim of this work. To verify the physic-chemical homogeneity of the calibration targets, micro Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) imaging was first used on the whole surface of the targets, then the relative abundances of the detected elements were computed on 20 randomly distributed areas of 100 × 100 ¿m. For those targets showing a positive Raman response, micro-Raman spectroscopy imaging was performed on the whole surface of the targets at a resolution of 100 × 100 ¿m. The %RSD values (percent of relative standard deviation of mean values) for the major elements measured with EDXRF were compared with similar values obtained by two independent LIBS set-ups at spot sizes of 300 ¿m in diameter. The statistical analysis showed which elements were homogeneously distributed in the 22 mineral targets of the SCCT, providing their uncertainty

Observations from orbital spacecraft have shown that Jezero crater, Mars, contains a prominent fan-shaped body of sedimentary rock deposited at its western margin. The Perseverance rover landed in Jezero crater in February 2021. We analyze images taken by the rover in the three months after landing. The fan has outcrop faces that were invisible from orbit, which record the hydrological evolution of Jezero crater. We interpret the presence of inclined strata in these outcrops as evidence of deltas that advanced into a lake. In contrast, the uppermost fan strata are composed of boulder conglomerates, which imply deposition by episodic high-energy floods. This sedimentary succession indicates a transition, from a sustained hydrologic activity in a persistent lake environment, to highly energetic short-duration fluvial flows.

El IGEO está comprometido con el fomento de la cultura científica en el ámbito educativo y social. Por ello desde hace un tiempo desarrollamos la iniciativa de divulgación “Geociencias en el Colegio”. Su objetivo principal es ayudar al profesorado en el desarrollo de temas científicos en las aulas a partir de textos rigurosos escritos por expertas y expertos del ámbito de las Geociencias, proporcionando además soporte para establecer nuevos cauces de divulgación de la ciencia.

As part of the Biology and Mars Experiment (BIOMEX; ILSRA 2009-0834), samples of the lichen Circinaria gyrosa were placed on the exposure platform EXPOSE-R2, on the International Space Station (ISS) and exposed to space and to a Mars-simulated environment for 18 months (2014–2016) to study: (1) resistance to space and Mars-like conditions and (2) biomarkers for use in future space missions (Exo-Mars). When the experiment returned (June 2016), initial analysis showed rapid recovery of photosystem II activity in the samples exposed exclusively to space vacuum and a Mars-like atmosphere. Significantly reduced recovery levels were observed in Sun-exposed samples, and electron and fluorescence microscopy (transmission electron microscope and field emission scanning electron microscope) data indicated that this was attributable to the combined effects of space radiation and space vacuum, as unirradiated samples exhibited less marked morphological changes compared with Sun-exposed samples. Polymerase chain reaction analyses confirmed that there was DNA damage in lichen exposed to harsh space and Mars-like environmental conditions, with ultraviolet radiation combined with space vacuum causing the most damage. These findings contribute to the characterization of space- and Mars-resistant organisms that are relevant to Mars habitability.

The pumice volcanic samples could have possible connections to the evolution of life and give us insight about their bio-geochemical processes related. In this regard, the samples from the volcanic eruption from La Restinga (El Hierro, Spain) in 2011 have been mainly studied by means of Raman spectroscopy. The research also includes analysis of XRD, Scanning Electron Microscopy and Optical Microscopy to support the Raman analysis. The results show that the Raman methods and mineral analyses are in strong agreement with the results obtained from other authors and techniques. The internal white foamy core (WFC) of the studied pumice samples shows amorphous silica, Fe-oxides, Ti-oxides, quartz, certain sulfates, carbonates, zeolites and organics. On the other hand, the external part (dark crust – DC) of these samples mainly presents primary-sequence mineralogy combined with some secondary alteration minerals such as olivine, feldspar, pyroxene, amorphous silica, and Fe-oxide. Raman spectroscopy detected other minerals not yet reported on these samples like barite, celestine and lepidocrocite. Also, the different chemometric and calibration methods for Raman spectroscopy in elemental composition, mineral classification and structural characterization has been successfully applied. From the astrobiological perspective, the research was also complemented with comparisons to other similar samples from terrestrial analogs. The main consideration was taking into account the proposed hypothesis regarding the potential behavior of the pumice as a substrate for the evolution of life. Furthermore, the detailed analysis from La Restinga eruption is coherent with the mineral phases and processes discussed from previous literature. The white internal part fulfills the conditions to work as an organic reservoir, confirmed by the detection of organic matter and selected minerals that could be used as energy sources for bacterial communities. The external layers of the samples work as

BIOMEX (BIOlogy and Mars EXperiment) is an ESA/Roscosmos space exposure experiment housed within the exposure facility EXPOSE-R2 outside the Zvezda module on the International Space Station (ISS). The design of the multiuser facility supports—among others—the BIOMEX investigations into the stability and level of degradation of space-exposed biosignatures such as pigments, secondary metabolites, and cell surfaces in contact with a terrestrial and Mars analog mineral environment. In parallel, analysis on the viability of the investigated organisms has provided relevant data for evaluation of the habitability of Mars, for the limits of life, and for the likelihood of an interplanetary transfer of life (theory of lithopanspermia). In this project, lichens, archaea, bacteria, cyanobacteria, snow/permafrost algae, meristematic black fungi, and bryophytes from alpine and polar habitats were embedded, grown, and cultured on a mixture of martian and lunar regolith analogs or other terrestrial minerals. The organisms and regolith analogs and terrestrial mineral mixtures were then exposed to space and to simulated Mars-like conditions by way of the EXPOSE-R2 facility. In this special issue, we present the first set of data obtained in reference to our investigation into the habitability of Mars and limits of life. This project was initiated and implemented by the BIOMEX group, an international and interdisciplinary consortium of 30 institutes in 12 countries on 3 continents. Preflight tests for sample selection, results from ground-based simulation experiments, and the space experiments themselves are presented and include a complete overview of the scientific processes required for this space experiment and postflight analysis. The presented BIOMEX concept could be scaled up to future exposure experiments on the Moon and will serve as a pretest in low Earth orbit.

[EN] Allende is an emblematic example of carbonaceous chondrite which fell in Pueblito de Allende (Mexico) in 1969. This meteorite is especially important due to its primitive composition, as one of the main representative examples of the first stages of the Solar System. In this study, a new multianalytical characterization of this chondrite has been carried out, focusing on the mineralogy and geochemistry of the chondrules and the matrix using several techniques: optical microscopy, SEM-EDX, electron microprobe and Raman spectroscopy, the latter has proven to be very useful providing information about the mineral and its structure., [ES] Allende es un ejemplo emblemático de condrita carbonácea caída en Pueblito de Allende (México) en 1969. Este meteorito es especialmente importante debido a su composición primitiva, como uno de los principales representantes de los primeros estadios del Sistema Solar. En este estudio se ha llevado a cabo una nueva caracterización multianalítica de esta condrita, centrada en la mineralogía y la geoquímica de los cóndrulos y la matriz empleando varias técnicas: microscopía óptica, SEM-EDX, microsonda electrónica y espectroscopía Raman, siendo especialmente relevante esta última, que ha demostrado ser de gran utilidad aportando información sobre el mineral y su estructura.

During the Early Triassic, harsh environmental conditions delayed the biotic recovery after the end-Permian life crisis, which is generally related to the massive eruptive event of the Siberian traps. The scarcity of the fossil record in many areas of the Earth following this global crisis has been mainly attributed to arid and acid palaeoenvironmental conditions. In the Iberian Peninsula, extensive aeolian and braided fluvial paleoenvironments have been identified, and the presence of secondary minerals, such as kaolinite and aluminium-phosphate-sulfate (APS), has been associated with acid meteoric waters. On Mars, many of these features, such as aeolian facies and minerals like jarosite or hematite, related to acid ground water alteration products, have been previously described on Meridiani Planum. During the Late Noachian, the possible occurrence of liquid water and warm conditions have been reported, being one of the most favourable periods for life development on Mars. However, an increase in aridity and acidity during the Late Noachian–Early Hesperian (probably related to the Tharsis volcanism), together with the internal switches that could have provoked inefficient water recycling, may have hampered the appearance and/or development of favourable habitability conditions on this planet. Therefore, the comparison of extreme palaeoenvironmental conditions of the Early Triassic on Earth with data from Meridiani Planum can sheds some light on the study of habitability on ancient Mars.