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This article describes underground open spaces or cavities that may be of natural or man-made origin. Natural structures include caves, dissolution and collapse cavities in soluble rocks, cambering fissures (or gulls), open fault cavities, and lava tubes. Man-made voids include all the different types of mines, habitation, religious and storage spaces, military excavations, tunnels, and shafts.

This paper examines communicating geoscience to indigenous peoples using a communication model that closely follows geological models for pollution issues. Although geoscientists will expend large amounts of energy in understanding a scientific process, relatively little energy is often expended in the analogous communication model. Reasons for this include a narrow focus on pure science, lack of confidence in engaging in communication and negative perceptions of communication ideas. Indigenous peoples are defined as ‘first occupiers’ of regions or nations relatively untouched by the predominant ‘Western–Asian’ technological-oriented culture. Few indigenous peoples are totally ‘untouched’ by the dominant world culture. Four cases studies from the Solomon Islands explore communication strategies relating to land access, a live volcanic event, the setting up of a gold mine, and raising awareness of volcanic hazards. Generic best practice advice offered includes the following: understanding of indigenous culture, customs, values, taboos and political–governance structures; involvement of indigenous people at every level of the communication process; identifying and including all stakeholders; a clear message, method and outcome focus; usage wherever possible of face-to-face communication and pictures as well as words; involvement of the community in practical exercises; a thorough follow-up and evaluation process; and sufficient time to allow the process to be effective.

1. Evidence-based policy requires researchers to provide the answers to ecological questions that are of interest to policy makers. To find out what those questions are in the UK, representatives from 28 organizations involved in policy, together with scientists from 10 academic institutions, were asked to generate a list of questions from their organizations. 2. During a 2-day workshop the initial list of 1003 questions generated from consulting at least 654 policy makers and academics was used as a basis for generating a short list of 100 questions of significant policy relevance. Short-listing was decided on the basis of the preferences of the representatives from the policy-led organizations. 3. The areas covered included most major issues of environmental concern in the UK, including agriculture, marine fisheries, climate change, ecosystem function and land management. 4. The most striking outcome was the preference for general questions rather than narrow ones. The reason is that policy is driven by broad issues rather than specific ones. In contrast, scientists are frequently best equipped to answer specific questions. This means that it may be necessary to extract the underpinning specific question before researchers can proceed. 5. Synthesis and applications. Greater communication between policy makers and scientists is required in order to ensure that applied ecologists are dealing with issues in a way that can feed into policy. It is particularly important that applied ecologists emphasize the generic value of their work wherever possible.

Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) Note 14 on instability was published in 1990 and later augmented by a specific Annex 2 on subsidence and planning. The guidance improved the consideration given to subsidence in planning but key advances tended to be focused on specific areas selected by Government for demonstration projects and a major derelict land reclamation initiative. Although subsidence issues tended to be taken into account in areas of extensive past underground mining, appreciation of the issues has been more difficult to establish where potential subsidence relates to isolated mining or natural underground cavities. Recent reform of the planning system has led to continuing replacement of PPGs by a series of Planning Policy Statements (PPSs). There are currently no plans to bring PPG14 or its annexes into a PPS format and there is a risk that it will gradually be forgotten and that good planning responses to subsidence may decline. Sustainability appraisal of spatial plans and environmental impact assessments of development proposals could help to ensure that this issue is not overlooked, but existing guidance on assessments does not refer explicitly to subsidence., Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) Note 14 on instability was published in 1990 and later augmented by a specific Annex 2 on subsidence and planning. The guidance improved the consideration given to subsidence in planning but key advances tended to be focused on specific areas selected by Government for demonstration projects and a major derelict land reclamation initiative. Although subsidence issues tended to be taken into account in areas of extensive past underground mining, appreciation of the issues has been more difficult to establish where potential subsidence relates to isolated mining or natural underground cavities. Recent reform of the planning system has led to continuing replacement of PPGs by a series of Planning Policy Statements (PPSs). There are currently no plans to bring PPG14 or its annexes into a PPS format and there is a risk that it will gradually be forgotten and that good planning responses to subsidence may decline. Sustainability appraisal of spatial plans and environmental impact assessments of development proposals could help to ensure that this issue is not overlooked, but existing guidance on assessments does not refer explicitly to subsidence.