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Data from two studies examined the: (a) attitudes and behavioral intentions of the public regarding the use of genetic engineering (GE) for addressing chestnut blight and helping to restore America...

Research models applying social exchange theory to examine factors predicting residents’ support for tourism have been challenged for their inability to explain support fully. Recent studies drawin...

Research regarding tourism’s effect on the subjective well-being (SWB) of destination residents has provided important insight, but it generally has relied on indirect analyses and diverse measures. This study used livability theory and a novel contingent SWB method in which respondents directly reported anticipated SWB effects. This method is exploratory, but it provides greater confidence in causal relationships. Results from a general population survey in Oregon (USA) suggested the method functioned as intended. County-level population growth and visitor intensity predicted perceived current impacts of tourism. In turn, perceived impacts predicted change in SWB contingent on a vignette reflecting a 20% increase in tourists. Across all individuals and counties, average SWB changes were negative for the environment domain and positive for other domains. Practical implications are discussed, with the most positive SWB effects from tourism development expected to occur in counties with low visitor intensity, especially those with low population growth.

This article examines overtourism indicators at Kailua Beach Park in Hawaiʻi, and demonstrates a systematic approach to assessing carrying capacity by pairing descriptive indicators with more commo...

This article examines public values and attitudes associated with the current marine reserves (MRs) in Oregon (United States), and how attitudes might change if these areas were to be designated as...

Insufficient funding is a major impediment to conservation efforts around the world. In the United States, a decline in hunting participation threatens sustainability of the “user‐pay, public benefit” model that has supported wildlife conservation for nearly 100 years, forcing wildlife management agencies to contemplate alternative funding strategies. We investigated support for potential funding options among diverse college students, a rapidly expanding and politically active voting bloc with a potentially powerful influence on the future of conservation. From 2018 to 2020, we surveyed 17,203 undergraduate students at public universities across 22 states. Students preferred innovative approaches to conservation funding, with 72% supporting funding derived from industry sources (e.g., natural resource extraction companies), 63% supporting state sources (e.g., general sales tax), and 43% supporting conventional user‐based sources such as license fees and excise taxes associated with outdoor recreation activities (e.g., hunting). Findings emphasize the need to broaden the base of support for conservation funding and highlight the importance of considering the preferences and perspectives of young adults and other diverse beneficiaries of wildlife conservation.

This article examined constraints to visiting urban parks and natural areas in the Portland, Oregon (USA) metropolitan region, as well as spatial attributes of these constraints. Data were ...

Psychological restoration and place attachment may be related to beliefs about environmental governance, with place attachment a likely mediator. We analyze data from a public survey in the Puget Sound area of Washington state (n = 2323) regarding beliefs about environmental governance, place attachment to the Puget Sound area, and psychological restoration related to this area. On average, individuals felt neutral in their beliefs about environmental governance, had high place attachment, and had high frequency of psychological restoration in natural environments. Structural equation modeling indicated that those who more frequently experienced psychological restoration from natural environments had stronger place attachment and more positive beliefs about environmental governance. Place attachment was significantly associated with governance perceptions, but explained only a small portion of variance (R2 = 0.02), while psychological restoration was significantly associated with place attachment and explained a moderate portion of its variance (R2 = 0.37). Place attachment fully mediated the effects of frequency of psychological restoration on beliefs about governance. Promoting psychological restoration and place attachment without attending to the process factors associated with good governance would not likely be a viable strategy for environmental managers to substantially increase positive beliefs about environmental governance.

Despite having protected status, poaching for the illegal trade and traditional use remains a primary threat to leopards (Panthera pardus) across southern Africa. Addressing this threat is challenging, not only because it is difficult to uncover and monitor illicit behavior, but because law enforcement and alternative intervention strategies need to account for cultural and political sensitivities to prove effective and sustainable. With up to 4 million followers in southern Africa, the recently‐established Nazareth Baptist “Shembe” Church represents the principal culturo‐religious use of illegal leopard skins in the world. This longitudinal study used in‐person questionnaires (n = 8,600) and telephone follow‐ups (n = 2,300) with Shembe followers to explore socio‐economic and experiential factors related to the desirability and possession of illegal leopard skins before and after receiving a faux alternative through the Furs for Life (FFL) intervention program. Proportional possession of authentic skins was relatively low among followers who received faux skins (21%), with declines of 7 and 13% in subsequent authentic skin acquisition and desirability, respectively. Logistic regression models revealed that authentic skin possession, both before and after receiving a faux skin, was primarily related to employment status. Desire for authentic skins increased with recipient age, but decreased with improved knowledge of leopard population status since receiving the faux skin. Followers who were dissatisfied with faux skins were likely to express a continued desire for authentic skins. Most followers (95%) were, however, satisfied with the faux alternative, having retained and worn it at gatherings, with little noticeable damage or perceived societal judgment. These results support the FFL intervention as a means of protecting leopards: Although authentic skins were still acquired, demand decreased significantly over 3 years with shifts in perception favoring faux leopard skin alternatives.

This research note examined encounters, norms, crowding, satisfaction, and displacement among people snorkeling and scuba diving with manta rays at sites in Hawaii. These sites are popular with up ...

Despite growing public pressure to use non-lethal strategies for managing predators (e.g., sharks) in marine ecosystems, the response of many governments remains largely lethal. This article examined recreationist support and understanding of approaches for managing sharks in two of South Africa’s marine areas. Questionnaires completed by 575 ocean recreationists at beaches near Cape Town and Durban showed they strongly disagreed with lethal management of sharks. The non-lethal Shark Spotters program was the most strongly supported strategy, followed by heat sensor cameras to detect sharks. Other non-lethal strategies (exclusion nets, personal repellent devices, deterrent cables, camouflage wetsuits) were supported by fewer than 50% of respondents, but were still more strongly supported than specific lethal strategies (shark hunts, drumlines, shark nets). Shark Spotters was more strongly supported near Cape Town, whereas the lethal strategies and a few of the other non-lethal approaches (personal electric repellent devices, electric deterrent cables, exclusion nets) were more strongly supported near Durban. Few respondents understood that shark nets and drumlines are designed to catch and kill large sharks. Understanding the function of shark nets correlated negatively with support for their use and positively with support for temporary exclusion nets. Implications of these results were discussed within the framework of a global transition from lethal to non-lethal management.

This article examined relationships between proximity to chronic wasting disease (CWD) and perceived risk and trust. The sample included 1,606 hunters in one of 10 northern Illinois counties with C...

Humans are transforming the coastal and marine tourism environment at an ever-increasing rate. Concurrently, the multiple amenities and natural resources of coastal zones and the reality of population growth contribute to omnipresent tourism user conflicts. This results in social, wicked, and super wicked problems that are value infused, difficult to frame, and seemingly intractable. In response, scientists and other experts are encouraged to engage in use-inspired research. Further, they are advised to reconsider the basic applied science dichotomy and to make policy contributions in the role of the honest broker. Articles from the 8th International Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism are introduced that deal with tsunami vulnerability (Thailand), wreck diving (Australia/Micronesia), national forest planning (Gulf of Alaska), cruise industry research, aquatic safety (Australia), surfing expansion (South Africa), stakeholder relations (Zanzibar, Tanzania), and kiteboarding (the Netherlands).

This article examined relationships among hunter perceptions of personal health risks from chronic wasting disease (CWD), knowledge and information about CWD, and perceptions of other hunting, wildlife, and health risks. Data were obtained from surveys of 2,725 deer and elk hunters in Colorado. Cluster analysis grouped hunters into no (42%), slight (44%), and moderate (14%) risk groups based on perceptions of personal health risks from CWD (e.g., concern about health, become ill from CWD). There were minimal differences among groups in demographics, information sources, and knowledge about CWD. Hunters who perceived higher health risks from CWD (i.e., moderate risk), however, perceived greater risks associated with CWD to other humans, CWD to wildlife, hunting to personal health, other diseases to health, and the future of hunting. These findings illustrated the concept of risk sensitivity where hunters who perceived higher risks from CWD were predisposed to rate all other risks as large.

This article explored attitudes toward using genetic engineering (GE) for restoring American chestnut (AC) trees, and cognitive and socio-demographic factors related to these attitudes. Questionnaires were completed by a random representative sample of the US public (n = 278) and a purposive sample of forest interest groups (FIG) such as scientists and managers (n = 195). Results showed somewhat positive attitudes toward all three GE applications (change existing AC genes, add genes from distantly related organism to AC, add oxalate oxidase [OxO] gene from bread wheat to AC) for mitigating chestnut blight (CB) and restoring AC trees. FIGs were more aware of CB, had more favorable attitudes, and perceived greater benefits and lower risks of these GE uses. Perceived benefits and risks were among the strongest drivers of attitudes for both groups, with environmental benefits the most strongly related to attitudes toward all three GE uses for the public sample and two of the three uses for the FIGs. Benefits and risks to humans, general environmental value orientations, specific value orientations toward forests, trust in agencies, awareness about CB, and socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., age, income, education, political orientation, forestry involvement, residential proximity to forests) were not as strongly related to these attitudes. These findings can inform research on reactions to using GE for conservation, and enable organizations to effectively communicate about using emerging technologies (e.g., GE) for addressing natural resource challenges.

Scuba diving and snorkeling with manta rays (M. birostris, M. alfredi) at sites in Hawaii, USA, have become popular, with upward of 30 tour boats and 300 participants daily. This article examined whether conflicts are occurring within and between these activities and if so, what types of conflict are prevalent and how would participants respond (support restrictions, sanction others). Data from surveys of 444 participants following evening trips to view manta rays showed that 79% of snorkelers experienced in-group conflict with other snorkelers, and 53% of scuba divers reported conflict with other divers. Most conflicts were interpersonal (physical interactions among individuals interfering with experiences). Conflict behaviors included bumping into people (up to 92%), not being aware (up to 73%), and blinding people with underwater flashlights (up to 56%). There were fewer out-group conflicts between different activities (snorkelers vs. scuba divers) and minimal social values conflicts (negative ...

This article examined coastal resident attitudes and behavioral intentions associated with new marine reserves (MRs) in Oregon, as well as resident perceived similarity and trust in the lead managing agency (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife). Data were obtained from a survey of residents along the Oregon coast (n = 596). Most residents perceived moderate similarity and trust in the agency, had stronger attitudes toward potential advantages of MRs, and would vote in support for the establishment of these reserves. Those living nearest the reserves had the most positive attitudes and were most supportive. Residents who perceived themselves as similar to the agency were more likely to trust this agency, and those with higher trust had stronger attitudes toward advantages of MRs and less agreement with disadvantages of the reserves. Residents with stronger attitudes toward advantages were most likely to vote for MRs, whereas those who agreed with disadvantages were less supportive.

This article examines environmental education by focusing on recreationist expectations for interpretation on marine tours, satisfaction with this interpretation and whether expectations were met, and how these perceptions correlate with components of the norm activation model. Recreationists surveyed before and after tours to Molokini, Hawaii (n = 439) had high pre-trip expectations for interpretation (e.g., about reefs, history), but satisfaction was lower and expectations for many recreationists were not met. Those who had their expectations met had higher problem awareness and ascribed more responsibility (i.e., norm activation) than those who did not, suggesting that interpretation is desired and may promote pro-environmental behavior.

Limited research has examined landowner acceptance of using incentives for managing wildlife (e.g., compensation schemes). We examined acceptance of strategies for managing beaver impacts, use of i...

This article focuses on the collaborative and voluntary Wilderness Best Management Practices (WBMP) for managing recreation in Tracy Arm-Fords Terror Wilderness in Alaska. Stakeholder definitions of wilderness, opinions about the WBMP, and whether these opinions are reflective of their perceptions of wilderness are examined. Interviews with tour operators, agency personnel, cruise industry representatives, and local residents showed that most expressed some degree of purism in their definitions of wilderness (e.g. solitude and minimal impact), although cruise representatives had less purist definitions. With the exception of cruise representatives, most felt that the wilderness character of this area is threatened by vessel traffic. Most supported the WBMP as alternatives to regulations because they allowed for freedom and input, but many felt that these practices may be unable to address future impacts. A few small and more purist operators felt that if the wilderness characteristics were threatened, the...

This article examines resident proximity and attachment to a new system of marine reserves in Oregon (USA), and the extent that these factors are related to both self-assessed and factual knowledge about these reserves. Data were from a survey of residents along the Oregon coast (n ¼ 596). Residents reported higher self-assessed than factual knowledge about these reserves, which was low with 65% answering half or fewer of 16 factual questions correctly. Self-assessed and factual knowledge did not differ between communities proximate to (i.e., communities of place within 10 miles of these reserves) and more distant from these reserves (i.e., rest of coast). Factual knowledge also did not differ based on attachment to these areas, but place attachment was slightly related to aspects of self-assessed knowledge where those with higher attachment believed they were somewhat more knowledgeable about these reserves. Implications of these results for management and research are discussed.

Recreationists who encounter more people than their normative tolerance for seeing others usually feel more crowded than those encountering fewer than their norm. This research note extends this ob...

This article examined constraints to visiting urban parks, whether constraints varied between traditionally well-served (white majority) and underserved (minorities) populations, and relationships among constraints, visitation, and place attachment for these groups. Data from two samples of Portland, Oregon (US) residents (n = 620, 2708) showed the primary constraints were limited knowledge about these parks, lack of access, and being too busy. There were minimal differences in these and most other constraints between underserved and well-served groups, but underserved residents were more constrained by race and cultural issues (e.g., lack of park visitor and staff diversity). There were no differences between groups in visitation or attachment associated with their favorite park. Constraints and visitation explained 20% of the variance in attachment for well-served residents and 29–32% for underserved residents, and constraints explained 3–18% of the variance in visitation for well-served residents and 9–11% for underserved residents. The strongest negative predictor of attachment for both groups was these parks not being the best places, and strong positive predictors for both groups were visitation frequency and lack of park facilities and services. For well-served residents, race and cultural issues were also strong predictors of attachment. For underserved residents, limited knowledge about these parks was also a strong predictor. The only predictors of visitation were fear, access, and costs. Management implications Managers of these parks might reduce constraints and increase visitation and attachment by improving awareness through advertising, increasing diversity (e.g., staff, visitors, programs), partnering with community organizations, enhancing facilities and services, making these parks safer and more accessible and affordable, and investigating what would make their parks interesting, welcoming, well-known, and better choices.

A representative survey of 530 residents of the most heavily populated region in Oregon (USA) showed that most believed the concept and label of wilderness could apply to the ocean. Although a majority thought Oregon's marine reserves could be called wilderness, other areas of the ocean along Oregon's coast and elsewhere in the world were seen as more appropriate for marine wilderness. Respondents also thought wilderness was more applicable to land than the ocean. Over half would not change their attitudes or visitation associated with marine areas if they were designated as wilderness. For those who would be affected by this designation, most would change their attitudes in a positive direction and increase visitation. “Marine protected area,” “marine reserve,” “marine wilderness,” and “wilderness” designations evoked different reactions among respondents with marine protected areas and reserves inferring regulations and limitations, and terrestrial and marine wildernesses eliciting notions of pristineness and purity.

This article focuses on a collaborative approach for addressing impacts of watercraft-based tourism in Tracy Arm-Fords Terror Wilderness, Alaska. This approach is the Wilderness Best Management Practices (WBMP) and involves codes of conduct for managing use in this area. This article examines use-related indicators that stakeholders prioritize for inclusion in the WBMP and stakeholder motivations for complying with these codes of conduct. Interviews with tour operators, agency personnel, cruise industry representatives, and local residents showed that vessel use levels, noise, pollution, and impacts on wildlife (e.g., seals) were important social and environmental indicators. Economic and institutional indicators were considered to be less important and included opportunities for inclusive stakeholder communication. Motivations for compliance mainly involved self-interest reasons (e.g., company image, public relations), but some stakeholders were motivated by peer pressure, awareness, and a sense of stewardship.

This article examined encounters, norms, and crowding of 1,422 individuals at six coastal and marine areas in hawai'i. Encounters and crowding differed among these sites with 38–55% of users feeling crowded. On average, however, users encountered fewer than half as many people (i.e., 63–192 per 500 × 200 yards) compared to their normative standard for the maximum use density they felt should be allowed at each site (i.e., 206–381 people per 500 × 200 yards). Only 11–21% of users encountered more people than their norm, and these individuals felt more crowded than those who encountered fewer than their norm. Crowding and encounters were important indicators at each site, and there was relatively high agreement regarding use densities that should and should not be allowed at each site. All three concepts (i.e., encounters, norms, crowding) should be measured when addressing social capacity issues.

This article uses data from 1,399 individuals at six sites in Hawaii to examine congruence among their encounters, norms, and satisfaction with six types of facilities (e.g., trash cans, bathrooms, signs) and the actual number of these facili- ties. The majority of users recalled encountering fewer of each facility than the number they believed should be at each site (i.e., their norm) and these users were least satisfied with these facilities. When user norms were compared to the actual number of facilities, however, there were enough of most facilities to meet these norms. Combining the number of facilities with the observation—norm—evalu- ation approach used in many social carrying capacity studies (e.g., encounters, norms, crowding) may be useful for measuring indictors of facility capacity.

This article examines relationships between hunter specialization and activity substitutability. Data were obtained from a mail survey of 6,983 deer hunters in eight states and 2,584 elk hunters in three states. Activity substitutability was measured by asking what activity would provide the same satisfaction as deer or elk hunting. Between 41% and 59% of deer hunters and 38% to 46% of elk hunters reported substitutes such as fishing and other big game hunting. Cluster analyses of hunter skill, centrality, equipment, and experience revealed four specialization groups (casual, intermediate, focused, and veteran). Casual hunters were most likely to report a substitute followed by intermediates, focused, and veterans. This inverse relationship between concepts was consistent across states and species hunted. Veteran hunters were most likely to report other big game hunting as a substitute, whereas casual hunters in many states were most likely to consider fishing as a substitute.

More than 40 years have passed since Shafer (1969) challenged the existence of the “average camper.” Recognizing that participants in recreation activities are heterogeneous in their commitments and interests, researchers have emphasized the importance of differentiating users into meaningful homogeneous subgroups. In his seminal article, Bryan (1977) coined the concept of recreation specialization as one approach for identifying, describing, and planning for these subgroups of recreationists. He defined specialization as “a continuum of behavior from the general to the particular, reflected by equipment and skills used in the sport and activity setting preferences” (Bryan, 1977, p. 175). At one end of this continuum are novices or infrequent participants who do not consider the given activity to be a central life interest or show strong preferences for equipment or technique. The other end of this continuum includes more avid participants who are committed to the given activity and use more sophisticated approaches. Recreationists have been thought to progress to higher stages along this continuum reflected by increasing skill, equipment, participation, and commitment (Bryan, 1977), although this assumption has come under some scrutiny (e.g., Kuentzel & Heberlein, 2008). Since Bryan’s (1977) original work, more than three decades of empirical research examining recreation specialization has improved the understanding of diversity within

This article examines visitor perceptions of voluntary environmental programs (VEPs) at the Mt. Bachelor ski area in Oregon, USA by examining what they know about VEPs, how these programs influence motivations to visit this area currently and in the future, and how place attachment, value orientations, and specialization influence these motivations and knowledge associated with VEPs. Data from an onsite survey of skiers and snowboarders (n = 429, 89.7% response rate) showed that few were knowledgeable of VEPs at this ski area or motivated to visit on their current trip because of these programs, but many intended to visit more often in the future if this area increases and promotes its VEPs. Respondents who were motivated to visit because of VEPs were more attached to this area and biocentric or environmentally oriented. Those who are likely to visit more often in the future if VEPs at this area increase were also more biocentric. Visitors who were knowledgeable about VEPs at this ski area were more biocentric, specialized in their activity, and attached to this area. Implications for management and future research are discussed.

We have been generously provided an opportunity to write a rejoinder to Jensen and Lister’s chapter published in this volume. From the outset, we want to make it clear that we consider such dialogue healthy and constructive for the field. We appreciate the opportunity to clarify the points made by Jensen and Lister and thank this book’s editors for the opportunity to do so.

Historically, most efforts to improve public knowledge of science and technology have focused on improvements in K-12 schooling, although post-secondary education and informal education have also been mentioned as important factors. Currently, little empirical data exist to determine how or when to best leverage science and technology education energies and resources. This article examines a range of factors potentially contributing to adult knowledge of science and technology. Results from a telephone survey of 1,018 adult residents in greater Los Angeles, California (United States) showed that adult free-choice learning experiences such as reading books and magazines about science and technology, using the internet, and watching science related documentaries and videos were the strongest predictors of self-reported knowledge of science and technology. Privilege, especially higher income and being male, was also an important factor, as were workplace experiences and childhood experiences outside of school. Although formal schooling was a significant predictor of this knowledge, it explained less variance in knowledge than most other factors. This research provides initial data on which to base discussions about how best to support public education in science and technology. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 50: 431-452, 2013

1000 I. 1000 II. 1001 III. 1014 IV. 1015 V. 1016 1016 References 1016 SUMMARY: Genetic engineering (GE) can be used to improve forest plantation productivity and tolerance of biotic and abiotic stresses. However, gene flow from GE forest plantations is a large source of ecological, social and legal controversy. The use of genetic technologies to mitigate or prevent gene flow has been discussed widely and should be technically feasible in a variety of plantation taxa. However, potential ecological effects of such modifications, and their social acceptability, are not well understood. Focusing on Eucalyptus, Pinus, Populus and Pseudotsuga - genera that represent diverse modes of pollination and seed dispersal - we conducted in-depth reviews of ecological processes associated with reproductive tissues. We also explored potential impacts of various forms of reproductive modification at stand and landscape levels, and means for mitigating impacts. We found little research on potential reactions by the public and other stakeholders to reproductive modification in forest plantations. However, there is considerable research on related areas that suggest key dimensions of concern and support. We provide detailed suggestions for research to understand the biological and social dimensions of containment technologies, and consider the role of regulatory and market restrictions that obstruct necessary ecological and genetic research.

Studies have combined contingent valuation and attitude theory in models directly predicting willingness to pay recreation fees. Little research, however, has modeled predictions of attitudes toward fees on both the intention to pay (WTP) and stated payment amount ($WTP) simultaneously. This article addresses that knowledge gap using onsite survey data from 1068 recreationists at the McDonald-Dunn forest in Oregon. Attitudes toward paying an annual fee at this forest were directly associated with WTP and were among the strongest predictors of WTP. Respondents with supportive attitudes toward paying the annual fee were more willing to pay than those who were opposed. The strength of attitudes also influenced WTP, with those respondents having stronger opposition being least likely to pay. Attitudes toward paying a fee were indirectly (i.e., mediation) related to the stated payment amount ($WTP), suggesting that payment is influenced by intention to pay (WTP), and this intention is partially a function of attitudes about fees.

This article uses data from a survey of 1,422 individuals visiting six coral reef areas in Hawai'i to examine their value orientations (e.g., protection–use, biocentric–anthropocentric) toward these areas and how these orientations influence their norms regarding use densities at these areas. Belief statements measured value orientations (e.g., “coral reefs have value whether humans are present or not”) and photographs of increasing use densities measured norms. The largest number of users had strong protectionist orientations toward reef areas and these individuals were more likely to feel that higher use densities should not be allowed in these areas, had more crystallization or consensus about use densities that should and should not be allowed, and believed more strongly that use levels were important to manage at these areas.

This article uses perceptions of commercial tour operators in Juneau, Alaska, to examine the extent to which the commercial outdoor recreation and tourism industry in this area reflects principles of McDonaldization – efficiency, calculability, predictability and control. Data from interviews with 23 operators suggest that this industry in Juneau illustrates these principles. The large-scale nature of this industry in the Juneau area necessitates elements of McDonaldization with examples such as the efficiency of short and packaged activities, the predictability of activities with certainty, the calculability of tour timeframes, and the control that the cruise industry exerts over commercial activities through contracts with tour operators. In contrast, evidence of customization and flexibility occurred alongside examples of McDonaldization, such as independent booking and customizable tours and interpretation. Implications of McDonaldization include increased number and diversity of visitors, as well as ...

This research note compares the commonly used scale of “very unacceptable” to “very acceptable” with an alternative scale of “should definitely not allow” to “should definitely allow” for measuring normative evaluations. Data were obtained from 1,422 users at six sites in Hawaii, and norms were measured in questionnaires with photographs depicting increasing use densities. Responses differed statistically between scales with users feeling that there should be more people allowed than they thought were acceptable at each site. The “acceptance” scale also generated more crystallization or agreement, but lower intensity or importance of use levels than the scale based on “should.” Effect sizes, however, showed that the magnitude of these differences was small or minimal, suggesting that the “acceptance” scale may be appropriate.

Although much research has discussed why tourists volunteer abroad, little work has explored the role of promotional material (e.g., internet websites) in volunteer decisions. We examined if promotional material played a motivating role in volunteer tourists' decision to select specific organizations or conservation projects, and if so, what in the material influenced their choices. We also identified types of promotional material used and how volunteers accessed this information. To collect data, we engaged in participant observation and conducted interviews at a conservation volunteer project in Ecuador with 36 volunteer tourists, 2 managers, and 3 volunteer coordinators. Findings revealed that volunteers almost exclusively used the internet to search for volunteer tourism opportunities. Volunteer decisions to select the organization or project were influenced by both website appearance (e.g., organized, professional) and specific content (e.g., photographs, volunteer comments, project descriptions, buzzwords). We discuss implications for managers and organizations, tourism theory, and future research.

Much research has examined why volunteer tourists volunteer abroad. However, little work has explored (1) if and how destination and organization attributes motivate volunteers or (2) manager perceptions of volunteer motivations. We identified attributes that pulled conservation volunteer tourists to the country, organization, and volunteer project. We compared these motivations and reasons for volunteering abroad with manager and volunteer coordinator perceptions of volunteer motivations. To collect data, we engaged in participant observation and conducted interviews with 36 volunteer tourists, 2 managers, and 3 volunteer coordinators at an Ecuadorian conservation volunteer project. Volunteers listed a range of motivations for their choices (e.g., reserve mission, price). Managers and coordinators correctly identified some motivations for volunteering abroad and selecting the destination, organization, and project (e.g., travel, price). However, they mentioned fewer reasons than volunteers and overlooked several major factors, especially altruistic and project-specific reasons. We discuss implications for managers and organizations, tourism theory, and future research.

This article describes three exploratory investigations of dimensions influencing scuba diver perceptions of crowding in underwater settings. Five focus groups of five to eight divers each suggested that number, proximity, and clustering of divers were important crowding dimensions. A multiple sort procedure with 60 other divers revealed that number and proximity were most important. A survey of 101 additional divers confirmed that number and proximity of divers significantly influenced crowding, but the number of divers was the strongest determinant. Photographs were used to test crowding dimensions underwater. Although additional research is needed to confirm these findings, this study serves as a guide for future research on social aspects of dive site planning and management.