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Common blue-tongued skinks (Tiliqua scincoides) are popular pet reptiles; however, there has been limited research to investigate sedatives for this species. The purpose of this study was to measure the physiologic effects of four combinations of alfaxalone, dexmedetomidine, and midazolam for minor procedures such as intubation and blood collection. Eleven common blue-tongued skinks (Tiliqua scincoides) were used for this prospective, randomized cross-over study. The subcutaneous combinations were used as follows: 20 mg/kg alfaxalone (A); 10 mg/kg alfaxalone and 1 mg/kg midazolam (AM); 0.1 mg/kg dexmedetomidine and 1 mg/kg midazolam (DM); and 5 mg/kg alfaxalone, 0.05 mg/kg dexmedetomidine, and 0.5 mg/kg midazolam (ADM). Heart rate, respiratory rate, palpebral reflex, righting reflex, escape reflex, toe pinch withdrawal reflex, tongue flicking, and the possibility of intubation were recorded at baseline and every 5 min for 60 min. Venous blood gases were measured at baseline, full sedation, and recovery. Heart and respiratory rates decreased significantly in all groups, but the reductions were most prominent in DM and ADM. Analgesic effects, as measured by the toe pinch withdrawal reflex, were only observed in DM and ADM. Intubation was possible in all four protocols; however, it was not possible in two DM skinks. Based on these trials, ADM and AM are recommended for minor procedures in blue-tongue skinks.

Abstract Background In February 2021, over one hundred scientists and policy experts participated in a web-based Workshop to discuss the ways that divergent evaluations of evidence and scientific uncertainties are used to delay timely protection of human health and the environment from exposures to hazardous agents. The Workshop arose from a previous workshop organized by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in 2008 and which also drew on case studies from the EEA reports on ‘Late Lessons from Early Warnings’ (2001, 2013). These reports documented dozens of hazardous agents including many chemicals, for which risk reduction measures were delayed for decades after scientists and others had issued early and later warnings about the harm likely to be caused by those agents. Results Workshop participants used recent case studies including Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), Extremely Low Frequency – Electrical Magnetic Fields (ELF-EMF fields), glyphosate, and Bisphenol A (BPA) to explore myriad reasons for divergent outcomes of evaluations, which has led to delayed and inadequate protection of the public’s health. Strategies to overcome these barriers must, therefore, at a minimum include approaches that 1) Make better use of existing data and information, 2) Ensure timeliness, 3) Increase transparency, consistency and minimize bias in evidence evaluations, and 4) Minimize the influence of financial conflicts of interest. Conclusion The recommendations should enhance the production of “actionable evidence,” that is, reliable evaluations of the scientific evidence to support timely actions to protect health and environments from exposures to hazardous agents. The recommendations are applicable to policy and regulatory settings at the local, state, federal and international levels.

Current sedation protocols for chelonians can pose a challenge to clinicians because of prolonged induction and recovery times, difficulties in gaining venous access, and natural species variation. This study evaluated the sedative and physiologic effects of intramuscular (IM) and intravenous (IV) alfaxalone in six wild-caught adult eastern mud turtles (Kinosternon subrubrum). The turtles received alfaxalone 10 mg/kg IM and IV in a randomized cross-over design. A 10-day washout period occurred between trials. Baseline parameters (heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature, and reflexes) were assessed prior to injection and every 5 min post-injection until recovery. Three venous blood gas samples were also collected and analyzed over the course of each trial (baseline, induction, and recovery). Intravenous alfaxalone resulted in a significantly faster induction (p = 0.016; median: 1.5 min, 25–75%: 1–7.5, minimum–maximum: 1–21) and a shorter total sedation time (p = 0.041; median: 52 min, 25–75%: 34.5–62.5, minimum–maximum: 33–87) when compared with IM alfaxalone (induction, median: 20 min, 25–75%: 15–22.5, minimum–maximum: 15–25; total, median: 70 min, 25–75%: 65–82.5, minimum–maximum: 65–90). Blood gas and physiologic parameters were not significantly different between groups; however, the pH (p = 0.009) and glucose (p = 0.0001) significantly increased, and partial pressure of carbon dioxide (p = 0.024) significantly decreased over time. This study demonstrated that alfaxalone 10 mg/kg IV or IM can be used to provide safe and effective sedation in eastern mud turtles.

Vitamin D is an important hormone that can be acquired through diet, exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation, or a combination of these methods. In domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), both methods appear viable, but there is limited research evaluating the effects of UVB on this species. Previous studies found that 12 h of artificial UVB radiation significantly increased 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25-OHD3) concentrations over time. While these findings suggest UVB can be beneficial in rabbits, this form of radiation can also be detrimental to vertebrates. The purpose of this study was to determine if shorter-duration UVB could elicit a similar physiological response in rabbits while minimizing potential negative effects. Six rabbits were used for this pilot study. The baseline serum 25-OHD3 was measured for each rabbit and following 14 days of 6 h/day exposure to artificial UVB, a second 25-OHD3 sample was collected. There was a significant increase (p = 0.001) in serum 25-OHD3 over time (Baseline: 27.7 ± 8.1 nmol/L; Day 14: 79.8 ± 9 nmol/L). This study affirmed that 6 h of UVB produced 25-OHD3 concentrations similar to those found in rabbits exposed to 12 h of UVB. Future studies should continue to determine how the duration of UVB exposure affects 25-OHD3 concentrations.

Background Abnormal renal hemodynamic responses to salt‐loading are thought to contribute to salt‐sensitive (SS) hypertension. However, this is based largely on studies in anesthetized animals, and little data are available in conscious SS and salt‐resistant rats. Methods and Results We assessed arterial blood pressure, renal function, and renal blood flow during administration of a 0.4% NaCl and a high‐salt (4.0% NaCl) diet in conscious, chronically instrumented 10‐ to 14‐week‐old Dahl SS and consomic SS rats in which chromosome 1 from the salt‐resistant Brown‐Norway strain was introgressed into the genome of the SS strain (SS.BN1). Three weeks of high salt intake significantly increased blood pressure (20%) and exacerbated renal injury in SS rats. In contrast, the increase in blood pressure (5%) was similarly attenuated in Brown‐Norway and SS.BN1 rats, and both strains were completely protected against renal injury. In SS.BN1 rats, 1 week of high salt intake was associated with a significant decrease in renal vascular resistance (−8%) and increase in renal blood flow (15%). In contrast, renal vascular resistance failed to decrease, and renal blood flow remained unchanged in SS rats during high salt intake. Finally, urinary sodium excretion and glomerular filtration rate were similar between SS and SS.BN1 rats during 0.4% NaCl and high salt intake. Conclusions Our data support the concept that renal vasodysfunction contributes to blood pressure salt sensitivity in Dahl SS rats, and that genes on rat chromosome 1 play a major role in modulating renal hemodynamic responses to salt loading and salt‐induced hypertension.

Bayesian inference and decision analysis can be used to identify the most probable differential diagnosis and use those probabilities to identify the best choice of diagnostic or treatment among several alternatives. In this retrospective case analysis, we surveyed three experts on the prior probability of several differential diagnoses, given the signalment and history of a ferret presenting for lethargy and anorexia, and the conditional probability of different clinical findings (physical, bloodwork, imaging, etc.), given a diagnosis. Using these data and utility estimates provided by other clinicians, we constructed a decision tree to retrospectively identify the optimal treatment choice between exploratory laparotomy and medical management. We identified medical management as the optimal choice, in contrast to the original clinical team which performed an exploratory laparotomy. We discuss the potential cognitive biases of the original clinical team. We also discuss the strengths, e.g., shared decision making, and limitations of a Bayesian decision analysis in the veterinary clinic. Bayesian decision analysis can be a useful tool for retrospective case analysis and prospective decision making, especially for deciding on invasive interventions or end-of-life care. The dissimilarity of expert-derived probability estimates makes Bayesian decision analysis somewhat challenging to apply, particularly in wide-ranging specialties like zoological medicine.

Introduction: Pain, temperament, fear, and anxiety can prevent safe and accurate evaluation of common neurologic reflexes in dogs. When sedation is used it is unknown how the neurological examination, and specifically patellar and withdrawal reflexes are affected, and, if present, how long any effect might last. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of sedation on the evaluation of select common limb spinal reflexes in healthy dogs.Material and Methods: Fourteen healthy dogs with normal neurologic exams were included. After placing joint landmarks, patellar reflex and pelvic and thoracic limb withdrawal reflexes were tested. Joint angles were measured, obtaining reflex angle endpoints, change in angle, and change in time to reflex completion. These measurements were recorded at different time points: prior to sedation (awake timepoint), 15 and 30 min following administration of standardized sedation protocol of dexmedetomidine and butorphanol, and 15 and 30 min following administration of a standardized reversal agent, atipamazole.Results: For patellar reflex, the stifle end angle increased from 91.5 to 108.55 degrees (p < 0.0001) 15 min following sedation, and remained increased at 104.5 degrees (p < 0.0001) 30 min following sedation. Stifle change in angle increased from 9.6 to 24.4 degrees (p < 0.0001) 15 min following sedation, and remained increased at 20.85 degrees (p < 0.0001) and 11 degrees (p = 0.012) at 30 min sedation and 15 min reversal. Tarsal joint in pelvic withdrawal and elbow in thoracic withdrawal reflexes did not differ in at any timepoint of sedation or reversal when compared with the awake timepoint, for end angle or change in angle. The increases in end angle and change in angle for patellar reflex generated a change in time for patellar reflex from 0.12 s (awake) to 0.129 s (15 min sedation) which was statistically significant (p = 0.041). Change in time did not differ for pelvic withdrawal or thoracic withdrawal.Discussion/Conclusions: Reflexes were elicited in all dogs under sedation. Sedation does not affect the evaluation of the withdrawal reflex on any limb but improves the visualization of the patellar reflex in this group of neurologically normal dogs.

Reptiles are highly susceptible to anthropogenic activities as a result of their narrow geographical ranges and habitat specialization, making them a conservation concern. Geckos represent one of the mega-diverse reptile lineages under pressure; however, limited assisted reproductive technologies currently exist for these animals. Exogenous pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) has been found to exhibit follicle stimulating hormone-like action and has been routinely used to alter reproductive hormones of vertebrates in assisted reproductive protocols. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of serial injections of 20 IU and 50 IU PMSG on circulating testosterone concentrations, testicular dynamics, and semen production in a model species of gecko. Twenty-four captive-bred, adult, male leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) were divided into three treatment groups and administered a once-weekly injection of either PMSG or saline for a total of nine weeks. Ultrasonographic testicular measurements, electrostimulation for semen collection, and venipuncture were performed on days 0, 21, 42, and 63. Right unilateral orchidectomies and epididymectomies were performed in all animals on day 63; tissues were submitted for histopathology. PMSG treated geckos had significantly higher testicular volumes and weights, spermatozoa motility, and spermatozoa concentrations compared with controls. However, there were no significant differences in testosterone concentrations by treatment or time. Under the conditions outlined, PMSG is effective at stimulating spermatogenesis and increasing testicular size, but not effective at increasing testosterone concentrations in the leopard gecko between October–December in the Northern hemisphere.

Isospora amphiboluri is a common coccidian found in captive bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). To minimize the impact of this parasite, it is important to characterize its pathogenesis so that we can develop appropriate methods for diagnosis and treatment. Forty-five juvenile bearded dragons were used for this two-part study. In the first part, ten bearded dragons were infected with 20,000 oocysts per os, while a control group of five animals received only water. Feces were collected over 45 days and screened for oocysts. In the second part, thirty bearded dragons were used to characterize the pathogenesis of I. amphiboluri. Twenty-five bearded dragons were infected as described previously, while five animals served as controls. Five infected bearded dragons and one control were humanely euthanized on days 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 post-infection for complete necropsies. The pre-patent period for I. amphiboluri was found to be 18.6 ± 1.9 days (range 15–22 days). Histopathology confirmed that I. amphiboluri follows a homoxenous life cycle. Infections begin in the duodenum and progress to the colon over time. The findings of this study can be used to develop better quarantine and treatment protocols for captive bearded dragons.