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According to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, a "Whole-of-Society" approach is needed to initiate transitions to a nature-positive society. Many look at civil society to initiate and accelerate such transitions. In this article, we investigate strategies from Civil Society Actors (CSAs) to contribute to transformative change, with specific focus on Tiny Forests and Beach Clean-Ups in the Netherlands. Results show that CSAs have a clear Theory of Change to achieve their goals, and act upon that vision through assembling power and resources, developing policy-relevant environmental knowledge, mobilising public support and media coverage and initiating innovative sustainable practices. Adopting mosaic governance approaches, CSAs strategically position themselves in social and institutional networks, connecting professionals and citizens for political leverage. However, our findings show that the step from local impact towards transition remains a large one and the contribution of CSAs should be valued as emergent, co-produced and part of a broader transition movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volunteers who clean beaches play a vital role in easing the harmful impact marine litter has on the environment. Understanding why people volunteer to clean beaches is important as it will help to predict the quality and quantity of participation. This study examines what motivates volunteers in beach clean-ups and identified different groups of volunteers based on their motivation. Data were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively which included exploratory factor analysis, cluster analysis, and thematic analysis. Four motivations were found in the factor analysis: environmental values, recreation, social interaction, and career and personal growth. Furthermore, the thematic analysis revealed two additional motivations: hopelessness and aesthetics. Four different volunteer segments were validated, indicating that volunteers are motivated to participate in beach clean-ups for several reasons. This study provides an understanding of motivations for a previously under-researched group of volunteers and will guide organisations to recruit and retain volunteers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microplastics are ubiquitous in marine environments and have been documented across all ocean compartments, especially surface waters, across the world. Even though several studies identify the presence of microplastics in the world's five oceans, there remains an overt problem of large inconsistencies in their sampling, extraction, and consequent quantification. Despite the complexity of these methodologies, researchers have tried to explore microplastic abundance in ocean surface waters. Using a systematic review approach, a dataset was derived from 73 primary studies undertaken since the year 2010 following the Oslo and Paris Conventions (OSPAR) guidelines to monitor and harmonise marine debris. The results showed differences in the abundance and distribution of microplastics in surface waters across oceans. The overall concentration of microplastics in all five oceans ranged between 0.002 and 62.50 items/m3, with a mean abundance of 2.76 items/m3. The highest mean concentration of microplastics was found in the Atlantic (4.98 items/m3), while the least was observed in the Southern Ocean (0.04 items/m3). While challenging, this paper recommends harmonisation of the sampling, separation, and identification methods across the globe to aid in the design of the appropriate mitigation strategies for reducing marine plastic pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mesoscale eddies – ocean vortices with spatial scales of tens to hundreds of kilometers and time scales of months to years – are among the most energetic forms of flow in the ocean, and may act as significant transporters of floating microplastics. Yet, shipboard observation has thus far not clarified the abundance and transport of microplastics in mesoscale eddies. We conducted floating microplastic surveys in an intense cyclonic mesoscale eddy with a large sea surface height depression (approximately 0.8 m), a so-called cold-core ring, in the Kuroshio Extension recirculation gyre (KERG) southeast of Japan. The concentration of microplastics within the eddy (460 × 104 pieces/km2) was one or two orders of magnitude higher than in the adjacent oceanic waters, likely due to the acquisition of microplastics from the microplastic-rich Kuroshio Extension (KE) when detaching, as well as the horizontal entrainment of particles by the eddy. Our examination by using an assimilation product showed that most particles captured by the eddy remained within for several months while the eddy moved clockwise in the KERG. These results suggest that mesoscale eddies are of importance in the transportation and redistribution of microplastics on the ocean surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microplastic pollution in the marine environment is of concern, with evidence of harmful effects onmarine biota and ecosystems. There is still a knowledge gap of the mass of plastics supplied to the ocean and plastics observed in the ocean, indicating a missing sink. Therefore, baseline and monitoring data are needed to inform policy and regulatory measures. The goal of this study was to collect harmonised data of microplastics from the surface of the ocean using the Neuston Microplastic Catamaran. This study shows that the surface water of the coastal ocean in the North Sea holds/sustains high concentrations of microplastic, which exceed previously recorded measurements from the North-East Atlantic and Scottish Waters, indicating that the total stock of plastics might be much higher than previously determined. Microplastics were detected in all samples with concentrations ranging from 857 to 25,462 items km-2. The majority of microplastics analysed were fragments of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene in the size range of 1,000--5,000 µm. Mesoplastics (>5,000 µm) mainly in the form of filaments were found with concentrations ranging from 0 to 2,139 items km-2, and macroplastics (>5,000 µm) in the form of fragments and filaments were also found with concentrations ranging from 0 to 1,078 items km-2. These fragments and filaments likely originate from the break-up of common macrolitter items in the environment, such as plastic bags, bottles, and fishing gears, which are commonly comprised of similar polymers to those found in the present study. Our findings demonstrate that litters of all size classes are abundant in surface water, highlighting that it is a key compartment for the transport of marine litter and should be monitored to better our understanding of the fate and danger of plastic contamination in our ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini) are critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, likely due to anthropogenic activities such as intense fishing and pollution. Nowadays, plastic debris contamination is a subject of concern due to its extensive presence in the sea and the digestive tracts of many fish species. The possible effects of plastic debris as a vector of other pollutants are still unknown. We analyzed the digestive tract of 58 hammerhead sharks to investigate the correlation between plastic and other anthropogenic microparticle contamination and their feeding habits in the eastern region of the Gulf of California, revealing a debris contamination occurrence of 79.3%. Out of these, 91.4% corresponded to fibers, and the remaining 8.6% to fragments. The main component of the debris was cellulose (64.4%). According to their diet, these organisms exhibit benthopelagic habits, feeding both in the water column and on the seabed. These results indicate a high level of contamination of anthropogenic cellulosic microfibers in the area. Although cellulosic microfibers are recognized as a biomaterial, they can be harmful to marine species, posing an additional threat to this iconic shark. This changed according to the year, indicating that the anthropogenic microparticle ingestion is related to the discharges of human activities and their seasonality rather than to a selection process by the sharks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

End users of single‐use plastics can help minimize their contribution to plastic pollution via mindful purchasing and waste management. These behaviors can be impacted via behavior change interventions in various key sectors of society. This review set out to summarize recent (2015–2023) peer‐reviewed evidence on interventions aimed at changing the plastic consumption, recycling, and/or littering behaviors of individuals across four sectors: business and retail, tourism and leisure, schools and education, and communities. Systematic literature searches were conducted across multiple databases and resulted in the inclusion of 92 intervention studies. Information on intervention strategy and effectiveness was extracted, and the studies were assessed for risk of bias. Intervention descriptions and outcomes were coded into five intervention categories (informational, contextual, prompts, social, and personal strategies) and synthesized qualitatively to inform future practice in an accessible manner. Although nearly half of the reviewed studies were assessed as having moderate‐to‐high risk of bias (e.g., lacked reliability assessment of outcome measures), limiting confidence in the documented findings, the review concludes that different strategies work in different sectors. For example, informational strategies showed mostly promising results in most sectors, but had mixed effectiveness in the education sector, while contextual modifications were effective across sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microplastics are ubiquitous in marine environments and have been documented across all ocean compartments, especially surface waters, across the world. Even though several studies identify the presence of microplastics in the world’s five oceans, there remains an overt problem of large inconsistencies in their sampling, extraction, and consequent quantification. Despite the complexity of these methodologies, researchers have tried to explore microplastic abundance in ocean surface waters. Using a systematic review approach, a dataset was derived from 73 primary studies undertaken since the year 2010 following the Oslo and Paris Conventions (OSPAR) guidelines to monitor and harmonise marine debris. The results showed differences in the abundance and distribution of microplastics in surface waters across oceans. The overall concentration of microplastics in all five oceans ranged between 0.002 and 62.50 items/m3, with a mean abundance of 2.76 items/m3. The highest mean concentration of microplastics was found in the Atlantic (4.98 items/m3), while the least was observed in the Southern Ocean (0.04 items/m3). While challenging, this paper recommends harmonisation of the sampling, separation, and identification methods across the globe to aid in the design of the appropriate mitigation strategies for reducing marine plastic pollution.

Abstract Background Human fishing activities have significantly affect environmental concern for marine ecosystems, conservation of marine mammals, and human health. Coastal cetaceans are highly vulnerable to ingestion of fishing gear, bycatching, or entanglement, all of which can be fatal for these animals. In particular, certain coastal dolphins and porpoises are heavily impacted by fishing gear such as angling gear or stownet, as their food often overlap with the target fish species of human fisheries. Case presentation This study presents a case of an Indo-Pacific finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) beached on the coast of Jeju Island, Republic of Korea, with ingestion of fishing gear and severe Anisakis infection. Although this species inhabits waters ranging from the Persian Gulf to Taiwan, several stranded carcasses have been reported on Jeju Island in recent years. Post-mortem computed tomography revealed a bundle of four fishing hooks in the forestomach, along with nylon lines and steel lines with connectors, which were assumed to be angling gear for Jeju hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus). Further necroscopic investigation revealed that the forestomach contained a large number of Anisakis spp. (Nematoda: Anisakidae). Histological examination revealed a thickened forestomach wall with pinpoint and volcanic ulcerations, a thickened layer of stratified squamous epithelium, and infiltrated stroma in the squamous epithelium. conclusions This study emphasizes the urgent need to address the impact of fishing activities on marine mammals, marine litter pollution, and the bycatch problem in Korean seawater. In addition, the occurrence of N. phocaenoides in seawater around Jeju Island should be raised in future geographical ecology or veterinary pathology studies and when its distribution is updated.

The threat of anthropogenic marine litter, particularly plastic pollution, to marine ecosystems and human health, has spurred mitigation initiatives and global scientific research. Following the Marine Strategy Framework Directive guidelines, this study evaluated marine litter distribution, cleanliness, and plastic pollution indices along Bulgarian Black Sea beaches in 2023. The survey integrates visual assessment, manual sampling, and drone mapping, distributing the beaches along the coastline to encompass a broader range, totaling 45, including 28 remote/natural, 10 semi-urban, and 7 urban beaches. Results indicate a 48% decrease in marine litter distribution on beaches from 1462 ± 147 items/100 m in 2021 to 753 ± 97 items/100 m in 2023, with Artificial polymer materials/plastic materials constituting 88.62% of the total litter amount. A comprehensive plastic macro litter pollution assessment was carried out along Bulgarian beaches using PAI for the first time. In 2023, the average cleanliness status of Bulgarian beaches was classified as "moderate" (CCI: 7.61 ± 1.00), with clean northern and central beaches contrasting with dirty southern beaches. Urbanized beaches were assessed with the highest level of pollution (PAIAV,23: 5.51; CCIAV,23: 18.16). In the long term, cleanliness and plastic pollution maintain "moderate" values with CCIAV,18-23: 8.81 ± 0.89, and PAIAV,18-23: 2.35 ± 0.32, persisting throughout the period, necessitating ongoing monitoring and intervention strategies. Despite identifying a significant number of clean beaches, none meet the EU threshold value of 20 litter items/100 m. This study highlights the urgent need for effective interventions to combat litter accumulation and plastic pollution, particularly in urban or semi-urban beaches, emphasizing multi-stakeholder collaboration for sustainable solutions and coastal ecosystem preservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides new insights onto spatial and temporal trends of seafloor macro-litter in the abyssal seafloor of Sardinian channel, in central western Mediterranean (Italy). Trawl surveys were conducted at depths between 884 and 1528 m, thus focusing on one of the least investigated marine environments. None of the considered sites was litter free, with plastics being numerically dominant (57% of items), followed by metal (11%) and glass (16%). Recorded densities and weight ranged between 49.9 and 499 items km−2 and 1.4 and 1052 kg km−2. In the most contaminated sites, the weight of the litter collected in nets represented up to nine times the biomass of benthic megafauna, and, overall, in 60% of hauls macro-litter mass outweighed the biomass collected. Moreover, we report that megafauna was observed to be more abundant in sites where macro-litter presence was more severe. More studies are needed to elucidate the nature of this correlation, with biota being more abundant in hotspots of accumulation of seafloor macro-litter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an assessment of X-band radar's detection capability to monitor Small Garbage Islands (SGIs), i.e., floating aggregations of marine litter consisting chiefly of plastic, under changing sea states. For this purpose, two radar measurement campaigns were carried out with controlled releases at sea of SGI modules assembled in the laboratory. One campaign was carried out with a calm sea and almost no wind in order to determine the X-band radar system's detection capabilities in an ideal scenario, while the other campaign took place with rough seas and wind. An analysis of the data acquired during the campaigns confirmed that X-band radar can detect small aggregations of litter floating on the sea surface. To demonstrate the radar's ability to detect SGIs, a statistical analysis was carried out to calculate the probability of false alarm and the probability of detection for two releases at two different distances from the radar. For greater readability of this work, all of the results obtained are presented both in terms of radar intensity and in terms of the radar cross-section relating to both the targets and the clutter. Another interesting study that is presented in this article concerns the measurement of the speed of movement (drift) of the SGIs compared with the measurement of the speed of the surface currents provided at the same time by the radar. The study also identified the radar detection limits depending on the sea state and the target distance from the antenna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the occurrence and characteristics of macroplastic and polymer microparticles in the Urias coastal lagoon's beach sediments, in northwest Mexico. Coastal lagoons, productive and vulnerable ecosystems, are impacted significantly by anthropogenic activities, leadings to their pollution by various contaminants, including plastics. Our research involved sampling sediments from four sites within the lagoon that were influenced by different human activities such as fishing, aquaculture, thermoelectric power plant operations, industrial operations, and domestic wastewater discharge. Our methodology included collecting macroplastics and beach sediment samples, followed by laboratory analyses to identify the plastic debris' size, shape, color, and chemical composition. The results indicated a notable presence of macroplastic items (144), predominantly bags, styrofoam, and caps made of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The polymer microparticles were mainly fibers, with cotton and polyester as the most common polymers, suggesting a significant contribution from clothing-related waste. The dominant colors of the microparticles were blue and transparent. High densities were observed in areas with slower water exchange. Our findings highlight the urgent need for better waste management practices to mitigate plastic pollution in coastal lagoons, preserving their ecological and economic functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Human fishing activities have significantly affect environmental concern for marine ecosystems, conservation of marine mammals, and human health. Coastal cetaceans are highly vulnerable to ingestion of fishing gear, bycatching, or entanglement, all of which can be fatal for these animals. In particular, certain coastal dolphins and porpoises are heavily impacted by fishing gear such as angling gear or stownet, as their food often overlap with the target fish species of human fisheries. Case presentation: This study presents a case of an Indo-Pacific finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) beached on the coast of Jeju Island, Republic of Korea, with ingestion of fishing gear and severe Anisakis infection. Although this species inhabits waters ranging from the Persian Gulf to Taiwan, several stranded carcasses have been reported on Jeju Island in recent years. Post-mortem computed tomography revealed a bundle of four fishing hooks in the forestomach, along with nylon lines and steel lines with connectors, which were assumed to be angling gear for Jeju hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus). Further necroscopic investigation revealed that the forestomach contained a large number of Anisakis spp. (Nematoda: Anisakidae). Histological examination revealed a thickened forestomach wall with pinpoint and volcanic ulcerations, a thickened layer of stratified squamous epithelium, and infiltrated stroma in the squamous epithelium. conclusions: This study emphasizes the urgent need to address the impact of fishing activities on marine mammals, marine litter pollution, and the bycatch problem in Korean seawater. In addition, the occurrence of N. phocaenoides in seawater around Jeju Island should be raised in future geographical ecology or veterinary pathology studies and when its distribution is updated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most advances in the remote sensing of floating marine plastic litter have been made using passive remote-sensing techniques in the visible (VIS) to short-wave-infrared (SWIR) parts of the electromagnetic spectrum based on the spectral absorption features of plastic surfaces. In this paper, we present developments of new and emerging remote-sensing technologies of marine plastic litter such as passive techniques: fluid lensing, multi-angle polarimetry, and thermal infrared sensing (TIS); and active techniques: light detection and ranging (LiDAR), multispectral imaging detection and active reflectance (MiDAR), and radio detection and ranging (RADAR). Our review of the detection capabilities and limitations of the different sensing technologies shows that each has their own weaknesses and strengths, and that there is not one single sensing technique that applies to all kinds of marine litter under every different condition in the aquatic environment. Rather, we should focus on the synergy between different technologies to detect marine plastic litter and potentially the use of proxies to estimate its presence. Therefore, in addition to further developing remote-sensing techniques, more research is needed in the composition of marine litter and the relationships between marine plastic litter and their proxies. In this paper, we propose a common vocabulary to help the community to translate concepts among different disciplines and techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foamed polystyrene (PS) is a prevalent material in consumer products and thus represents one of the largest constituents of marine litter. PS may interact with and be ingested by various organisms, including insects, which are starting to be used in biodegradation of plastic wastes. This study examines the physiological performances and the potential oxidative stress related to dietary environmental PS exposure of Z. morio larvae. Experimental groups were fed different diets: bran and oatmeal (control), weathered PS collected from the marine environment, and virgin PS. Over a 30-day feeding period, larvae growth, survival, and PS consumption were measured, together with antioxidant enzymatic activities and gene expression profiles. Results showed that PS ingestion supports larval growth similarly to bran, but the two PS-fed groups consumed a different amount of plastic, suggesting that weathered PS might affect the patterns of PS consumption by larvae. We denoted that PS consumption was associated with a decline in total antioxidant capacity, which showed the highest decrease in the environmental PS group. Marked increases in oxidative stress biomarkers such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity/mRNA levels and malondialdehyde content were also observed in the environmental PS-fed group, indicating an elevated oxidative stress response, probably due to pollutants adsorbed/absorbed on PS. Differently to SOD, catalase at both mRNA and enzyme activity levels was found to be significantly reduced by PS digestion, regardless of PS type. The mRNA levels of glutathione s-transferase (GST) were significantly higher in the environmental PS-fed larvae compared to the virgin PS-fed group. In addition, Principal Component Analysis clearly distinguished between larvae fed different PS types, highlighting the enhanced oxidative stress caused by the ingestion of PS collected from marine environments. These results support the potential of insects in plastic biodegradation processes but also demonstrate the health hazards of using environmental PS as principal dietary component in Z. morio larvae, thus questioning their use in downstream productions.

IntroductionThe quality of municipal solid waste governance is a key public issue associated with environmental, social, and health concerns that still demands appropriate indicators to encompass different policy, management, and data availability settings worldwide. This study aimed to develop and apply a Municipal Solid Waste Governance Index (MSWGI) to support the monitoring and assessment of the ultimate factors that influence the performance of municipal solid waste (MSW) management in municipalities, incorporating particularities of Global South countries.MethodsThe development of the MSWGI comprised two approaches: (1) the establishment of a general theoretical framework with the identification of dimensions for monitoring MSW governance and (2) the development and application of the index using Brazil as a study case. The latter was accomplished through five incremental steps: (i) data selection and data quality analysis, (ii) data normalization and definition of data scores, (iii) data weighting and aggregation through statistical and participatory methods, (iv) data classification and, finally, (v) visualization of the index and its dimensions. Based on a broad literature review, three dimensions were proposed as the framework of the MSWGI: (i) regulatory quality (e.g., laws), (ii) voice and accountability (e.g., access to information; existence and functioning of the municipal council for the environment), and (iii) government effectiveness (e.g., financial and human resources; execution of government programs). A case study was then carried out with the 5,570 Brazilian municipalities to showcase the application and relevance of the MSWGI in a Global South context.ResultsDespite the high regulatory quality condition in Brazil, this was not reflected in the MSWGI. In general, most municipalities have high (31.4%) and very high (23.7%) regulatory quality, contrasting low voice and accountability (32.4%), and medium government effectiveness (27.8%), the latter associated with the low quality of public services performed in municipalities. The index was also negatively influenced by the precarious mechanisms and structure of social participation; high levels of informality in the recycling sector, and low completeness and consistency of databases. The MSWGI was associated with socioeconomic development, and its concept and dimensions captured the complexities associated with MSW management.DiscussionThe index, and the approach behind it, can be used as an objective tool to improve databases and the enabling conditions to foster MSW governance and management, while also creating indicators to assess its progress, facing the policy implementation gaps that are common to Global South countries. Also, rather than presenting an index to be directly transposed and applied to other locations, the steps of a strategy for generating an MSWGI from existing data were outlined. In this sense, this study creates mechanisms to refine these indicators within data-deficient context, presenting strategies that can be broadly applied.

Abstract End users of single‐use plastics can help minimize their contribution to plastic pollution via mindful purchasing and waste management. These behaviors can be impacted via behavior change interventions in various key sectors of society. This review set out to summarize recent (2015–2023) peer‐reviewed evidence on interventions aimed at changing the plastic consumption, recycling, and/or littering behaviors of individuals across four sectors: business and retail, tourism and leisure, schools and education, and communities. Systematic literature searches were conducted across multiple databases and resulted in the inclusion of 92 intervention studies. Information on intervention strategy and effectiveness was extracted, and the studies were assessed for risk of bias. Intervention descriptions and outcomes were coded into five intervention categories (informational, contextual, prompts, social, and personal strategies) and synthesized qualitatively to inform future practice in an accessible manner. Although nearly half of the reviewed studies were assessed as having moderate‐to‐high risk of bias (e.g., lacked reliability assessment of outcome measures), limiting confidence in the documented findings, the review concludes that different strategies work in different sectors. For example, informational strategies showed mostly promising results in most sectors, but had mixed effectiveness in the education sector, while contextual modifications were effective across sectors.

Microplastic pollution in the marine environment is of concern, with evidence of harmful effects on marine biota and ecosystems. There is still a knowledge gap of the mass of plastics supplied to the ocean and plastics observed in the ocean, indicating a missing sink. Therefore, baseline and monitoring data are needed to inform policy and regulatory measures. The goal of this study was to collect harmonised data of microplastics from the surface of the ocean using the Neuston Microplastic Catamaran. This study shows that the surface water of the coastal ocean in the North Sea holds/sustains high concentrations of microplastic, which exceed previously recorded measurements from the North-East Atlantic and Scottish Waters, indicating that the total stock of plastics might be much higher than previously determined. Microplastics were detected in all samples with concentrations ranging from 857 to 25,462 items km−2. The majority of microplastics analysed were fragments of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene in the size range of 1,000–5,000 µm. Mesoplastics (>5,000 µm) mainly in the form of filaments were found with concentrations ranging from 0 to 2,139 items km−2, and macroplastics (>5,000 µm) in the form of fragments and filaments were also found with concentrations ranging from 0 to 1,078 items km−2. These fragments and filaments likely originate from the break-up of common macrolitter items in the environment, such as plastic bags, bottles, and fishing gears, which are commonly comprised of similar polymers to those found in the present study. Our findings demonstrate that litters of all size classes are abundant in surface water, highlighting that it is a key compartment for the transport of marine litter and should be monitored to better our understanding of the fate and danger of plastic contamination in our ocean.

The aim of this paper is to identify and develop key indicators related to beach and marine litter using land and coastal areas as sources to diagnose the current situation in Tunisia. Based on the results, recommendations have been developed to support the decision-making process. In this study, three main indicators and twelve sub-indicators were developed and classified into driving factors and resulting situations. These were developed based on (1) a large literature and participative approach and (2) beach litter monitoring campaigns carried out on five beaches from the north to the south during three years and different seasons using the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) method for beach litter monitoring on 100 m. The results show that plastic represented the main littered item in coastal areas and beaches in Tunisia (ranging between 54% and 70%). In addition, another one of the most littered items was packaging, which ranged between 54% and 74% of the total waste. The findings highlight that tourism and recreational activities represent the main source of items identified (between 89% and 95%). Furthermore, the amount of litter identified was relatively important during a low tourism period in comparison to the period from the preseason preparation to the end of the high season when cleaning operations can have a great impact. Finally, the findings indicate that the average quantities of plastic per kilometer in Gammarth, Hammamet, and Sousse tourism areas were much lower than in Sfax and Gabès. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study addresses the microplastic contamination in the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) of two cetacean species along the Romanian coast. Microplastic contamination in cetacean GITs was very little researched in the Black Sea. The GIT content of stranded and by-caught cetaceans was processed using a multi-sieve tool, an innovative approach never applied to the Black Sea. After sieving, the samples underwent a laboratory treatment to minimize organic materials in the samples, facilitating the observation of plastics under a stereomicroscope. All investigated individuals had ingested plastics, especially microplastics. Compared to other studies, the number of microplastics found was much higher. One hypothesis that these data point to is that the Black Sea may be more polluted with plastic litter than other European seas. To test this hypothesis, a more extensive analysis involving a larger number of samples should be undertaken. Simultaneously, intensifying research efforts could contribute to a more comprehensive assessment of the marine environmental status, under Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). Plastic pollution is a global concern that has a significant impact on marine life. Plastic is widely used and has become a pervasive pollutant in marine environments. Plastic contamination has been documented both in marine environments and biota. Plastic contamination in cetacean gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) content has received limited attention, especially in the Black Sea. This study aims to investigate plastic contamination in the GITs of bottlenose dolphins and harbour porpoises, introducing a novel methodology. Given the limited exploration of this issue in the Black Sea, the research predominantly focuses on microplastic contamination. The GITs were sampled through necropsy from stranded and by-caught cetaceans, and content was washed through a multi-sieves tool. The material retained on each sieve was analysed following specific protocols. All (100%) of the GITs contained plastics (meso- and microplastics). In total, 1059 items (fibres, fragments, and beads) ranging from 22.86 µm to 5776 µm were found, suggesting a high contamination level in the Black Sea cetaceans. Future efforts should concentrate on increasing the number of samples and using the results for the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drifting marine debris has been shown to host associated biological communities and facilitate their dispersal. Little is known about how biota engage with, and are transported by, this debris. This study characterizes debris-associated communities and explores the role of plastics in transferring fishes to new geographic regions. ~ 1500 underwater photographs were reviewed from five cruises during 2018–2020: one between Japan and Hawaii encompassing the Western and Eastern Pacific Ocean (Group I), and four passing through the North Pacific Garbage Patch in the Eastern Pacific Ocean (Group II). Debris properties were recorded and 13 associated fish species from 43 debris items were identified. Fish communities around marine debris have low diversity, individual debris items have highly dissimilar species compositions, and species composition is affected by horizontal debris item size. Debris items in Group I have significantly higher fish species diversity and differ in community composition from Group II. Four taxa (Abudefduf vaigiensis, Histrio histrio, Oplegnathus punctatus, and Petroscirtes spp.) were observed surviving east of the Hawaiian Islands, where they have not been previously reported. Marine debris is found to be a mobile natural habitat substitute that can facilitate long-distance species dispersal. While natural flotsam has long been a potential vector, long-lived and increasingly abundant plastic debris may set the stage for altering fish biogeography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every year, harbor and sailing festivals attract close to 20 million visitors in the Baltic Sea region, but their consequences on marine litter pollution are still unknown. We combine field studies with model simulations and literature reviews to quantify the annual emissions of floating macro-litter and to assess its retention in estuaries and role in Baltic Sea pollution. Results focusing on Hanse Sail in Rostock and Kiel Week are extrapolated to the entire Baltic Sea region. After the Hanse Sail 2018, the harbor pollution amounted to about 950 floating macro-litter particles/km²; 85–90% were plastics. We calculated an emission between 0.24 and 3 particles per 1000 visitors, depending on the year and the waste management system. About 0.02% of all waste generated during a festival ends up in the harbor water. The Hanse Sails contributes less than 1% to the total annual macro-litter emissions in the Warnow estuary. Model simulations indicate that over 99% of the emitted litter is trapped in the estuary. Therefore, Hanse Sails are not relevant to Baltic Sea pollution. The extrapolated Baltic-Sea-wide annual emissions are between 4466 and (more likely) 55,830 macro-litter particles. The over-30 harbor and sailing festivals contribute an estimated <0.05% to the total annual macro-litter emissions in the Baltic Sea region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The threat of anthropogenic marine litter, particularly plastic pollution, to marine ecosystems and human health, has spurred mitigation initiatives and global scientific research. Following the Marine Strategy Framework Directive guidelines, this study evaluated marine litter distribution, cleanliness, and plastic pollution indices along Bulgarian Black Sea beaches in 2023. The survey integrates visual assessment, manual sampling, and drone mapping, distributing the beaches along the coastline to encompass a broader range, totaling 45, including 28 remote/natural, 10 semi-urban, and 7 urban beaches. Results indicate a 48% decrease in marine litter distribution on beaches from 1462 ± 147 items/100 m in 2021 to 753 ± 97 items/100 m in 2023, with Artificial polymer materials/plastic materials constituting 88.62% of the total litter amount. A comprehensive plastic macro litter pollution assessment was carried out along Bulgarian beaches using PAI for the first time. In 2023, the average cleanliness status of Bulgarian beaches was classified as “moderate” (CCI: 7.61 ± 1.00), with clean northern and central beaches contrasting with dirty southern beaches. Urbanized beaches were assessed with the highest level of pollution (PAIAV,23: 5.51; CCIAV,23: 18.16). In the long term, cleanliness and plastic pollution maintain “moderate” values with CCIAV,18-23: 8.81 ± 0.89, and PAIAV,18-23: 2.35 ± 0.32, persisting throughout the period, necessitating ongoing monitoring and intervention strategies. Despite identifying a significant number of clean beaches, none meet the EU threshold value of 20 litter items/100 m. This study highlights the urgent need for effective interventions to combat litter accumulation and plastic pollution, particularly in urban or semi-urban beaches, emphasizing multi-stakeholder collaboration for sustainable solutions and coastal ecosystem preservation.

Plastic wastes —including cigarette butts (CBs)— are dangerous for marine ecosystems not only because they contain hazardous chemicals but also because they can finally turn into micro- or even nano-particles that may be ingested by micro- and macro-fauna. Even large pieces of plastics can trap animals. In this research, the pollution status of macroplastics (abundance, size, type, and colour) and cigarette butts (CBs, number/m2) on the northern coasts of the Persian Gulf has been investigated. A total of 19 stations were explored in Bushehr province (Iran), which covers a length equivalent to 160 km of the Persian Gulf coastline. Among the collected plastic waste (2992 items), disposable mugs were the most frequent (18 %). Plastics with sizes 5–15 cm were the most abundant, and the most common type of plastic was PET (P-value

Indonesia is one of the largest contributors to global marine litter deposition, given its high population and the largest archipelagic country. The increasing problem of plastic littering has recently attracted the attention of researchers. This study aims to identify marine and macroplastic litter in Semarang City. A field survey was conducted by dividing the beach into 18 sampling grids, each with an area of 1 × 1 m2. A literature survey was also conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology to identify literature that can be used to develop recommendations. The results showed that 6.26–11.16 grams/m2/ day of marine litter and approximately 1.61–4.89 items/m2/day of plastic litter would be deposited on Semarang City beaches. The greatest contributors to macroplastic litter were polypropylene (PP) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE), which should be considered for further intervention. Strategic recommendations were developed based on an in-depth literature survey and best practices in the current field. These also include recommendations that can be used as a reference by policymakers and other stakeholders to reduce marine pollution. The results of this study are expected to provide a multiplier effect on reducing marine pollution for the city.

Marine litter pollution is one of the top ten global environmental problems and a common environmental challenge faced by the world, and it is currently a priority environmental issue for the government of China. Based on the perspective of new economic sociology, this paper used the micro data obtained from field research in Qingdao City to build a multi-dimensional analysis framework of the public's willingness of marine litter management. The empirical results showed that the public in Qingdao City had a basic level of cognition of marine litter pollution and an urgent need for management. 70.28% of respondents were willing to support marine litter management. In participating in the management of marine litter, the public not only had the characteristics of "economic people", but also had the characteristics of "social people". Government governance, pollution awareness, social culture, and relationship networks all had a significant positive impact on the public's willingness of marine litter management, and individual social, economic, residential characteristics and other independent factors also had a significant impact.

Plastic pollution is ubiquitous, and the Arctic is no exception. One important step to understand the extent of the problem, and to monitor its impact is to have repeatable, comparable, and relevant measures across time and space that allow for the detection of marine litter trends. Arctic shorelines are a critical part of monitoring efforts. Pan-Arctic monitoring of litter on shorelines is also an essential component to examine global trends. Based on previous work examining litter in some regions of the Arctic, we suggest steps towards more harmonized protocols that include community-based monitoring, crowdsourced science programs, and science team-based surveys that are specific for the Arctic. Specifically, we recommend that shoreline survey sites for long-term monitoring be established where possible and be at least 50 m and surveys carried out at regular intervals of at least twice a year by any type of research team. Criteria for the selection of sites should be grounded in Indigenous and other local community and regional priorities, and should result in representation of both remote shorelines impacted by distant-source marine litter and shorelines impacted by more local sources. Results of any Arctic shoreline litter surveys should be made regularly available either through publications which include data sets, and/or accessible databases to promote regional comparisons and trend analysis across the pan-Arctic.

Scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini) are critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, likely due to anthropogenic activities such as intense fishing and pollution. Nowadays, plastic debris contamination is a subject of concern due to its extensive presence in the sea and the digestive tracts of many fish species. The possible effects of plastic debris as a vector of other pollutants are still unknown. We analyzed the digestive tract of 58 hammerhead sharks to investigate the correlation between plastic and other anthropogenic microparticle contamination and their feeding habits in the eastern region of the Gulf of California, revealing a debris contamination occurrence of 79.3%. Out of these, 91.4% corresponded to fibers, and the remaining 8.6% to fragments. The main component of the debris was cellulose (64.4%). According to their diet, these organisms exhibit benthopelagic habits, feeding both in the water column and on the seabed. These results indicate a high level of contamination of anthropogenic cellulosic microfibers in the area. Although cellulosic microfibers are recognized as a biomaterial, they can be harmful to marine species, posing an additional threat to this iconic shark. This changed according to the year, indicating that the anthropogenic microparticle ingestion is related to the discharges of human activities and their seasonality rather than to a selection process by the sharks.

Implementing litter and plastic pollution prevention strategies is essential for cities of developing countries, mainly due to the prevailing high incidence of littering and the urgent need to realize the adverse per capita environmental impact target of the sustainable development goals. In this article, we report the use of the prominent reasoned action approach—in its original state and an extended model with moral norms—for exploring the critical socio-cognitive determinants of individuals’ litter prevention intentions in Ghana. By analyzing the valid answers of 447 participants to a structured questionnaire on litter prevention, we found attitudes (β = 0.35, SE= 0.014, p < 0.001) and moral norms (β = 0.57, SE= 0.099, p < 0.001) as the most influencing determinants to individual intentions in the original and the extended models, respectively. The analysis suggests that individuals will stop littering their environments if environmentally friendly interventions are implemented to elicit self-responsibility and moral obligation. Campaigns that demonstrate the effects of littering on drain blockage, flooding, and disease outbreaks may improve individual litter prevention attitudes. Installing waste receptacles in public spaces and communicating persuasive messages may facilitate personal antilittering intentions. Apart from contributing to the implementation of a litter management strategy to reduce the flood risk and enhance the resilience of the Greater Accra region of Ghana, this research helps to close the literature gaps in litter prevention behavior in developing countries, as well as support the implementation of the sustainable development goals and the global plastic action partnership. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to guide the stakeholder engagement process related to plastic pollution research in marine environments. We draw on advice identified during an online workshop (Ocean Plastic Workshop 2022) organized by Early Career Ocean Professionals (ECOPs) from 11 countries, held in April 2022. International experts and workshop participants discussed their experiences in the collaborative development and implementation of ocean plastic pollution projects held worldwide, guided by three main questions: (i) What is the role of scientists in a multi-stakeholder project? (ii) How should scientists communicate with other stakeholders? (iii) Which stakeholders are missing in collaborative projects, and why are they missing? This multidisciplinary, co-learning approach highlights the value of stakeholder engagement for ocean plastic projects with an end goal to identify and implement ocean plastic solutions via innovative technologies, informing policy, community engagement, or a combination of all three approaches. The target outcomes of the workshop described in this paper include the identification of transdisciplinary (academic-stakeholder) engagement frameworks and specific suggestions that can serve as guidelines for the development of future plastic pollution projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Microplastics are plastic fragments measuring less than 5 millimeters which are formed from degraded plastic materials and have the potential to pollute the environment. Due to their widespread presence in the marine environment, microplastics have become a significant global threat. The presence of microplastics is often considered as causing pollution in various environments, especially aquatic ecosystems such as rivers and oceans. Microplastics contamination can even be found in consumed salt, thus raising concerns about its impact on human health. However, information on the presence of microplastics in salt is still very limited. This study aims to determine the abundance and characteristics of microplastics as contaminants in salt and assess the human exposure to microplastics in Indonesia. METHODS: A total of 21 samples of salt products were taken from various brands available in Padang City and Jambi City, Indonesia for analysis. Microplastics extraction was carried out by removing the organic materials contained in the salt samples using 30 percent hydrogen peroxide and then filtering them with a 0.45 micrometer pore filter. A stereomicroscope was used to detect the abundance, shape, size, and color of microplastics, while the Attenuated Total Reflection-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy was utilized to identify the polymer type of the microplastics. Furthermore, human exposure to microplastics can be predicted by calculating the estimated dietary intake and taking into account the daily salt intake. FINDINGS: Microplastics were detected in significant amounts (p<0.05) in all salt samples, ranging from 33 to 313 particles/kilogram. The types of microplastics most commonly found in the samples were fragments (67.49 percent), fibers (23.82 percent), films (6.08 percent), and pellets (2.61 percent). The types of polymer identified include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyester. The dominant microplastics were 100-300 micrometers in size (47.3 percent) and black in color (52.88 percent). It is estimated that adults in Indonesia will be exposed to 60.225-571.225 microplastics/year if they consume 5 grams of salt/day or 120.45-1142.45 microplastics/year if they consume 10 grams of salt/day. CONCLUSION: Of the 21 salt samples analyzed, all were detected to contain microplastics. Inadequate and unhygienic salt production and contaminated seawater used as raw material contribute to microplastics contamination of salt, thus posing a risk to human health. By calculating of daily salt intake of the Indonesian population, it is possible to estimate their daily and annual exposure to microplastics. The results of this study contain useful information for the efforts to prevent microplastics contamination by relevant stakeholders and the provision of education and socialization about the proper salt production process in accordance with food safety standards as to reduce or even eliminate microplastics in salt. In addition, this study can provide valuable data on human exposure to microplastics in salt products that can assist policymakers in making standard references for microplastics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: What are the main findings? The presence of marine litter in sublittoral areas is determined by the density of coastal tourist territories and is lower in areas predominantly used for tourism versus those of mostly resi-dential use; Data collection methodology using depth line transects is essential for estimating marine litter density; The presence of macro debris from motor vehicle tyres is independent of urban areas and their associated density and is also unrelated to maritime access. What are the implications of the main finding? The density of coastal tourist territories plays a crucial role in determining the possible presence of marine litter in sublittoral areas and developing specific preventive policies; It is not possible, with current technology, to use remote means of complex surface and bottom collection of marine litter without depth transects; The deposition of a characteristic type of marine litter, used tyres, shows patterns of occurrence totally independent of coastal urban density. The coastal strip, characterized by the urbanization of coastal tourist territories (CTTs), has expanded over decades through civil engineering, altering the shoreline dynamics and creating artificial beaches crucial for tourism. To examine the relationship between extensive land use in CTTs for tourism and residences and the presence of marine litter, a specific parametric study was conducted along the coast of Tenerife, the largest island in the Canary Islands. Due to Tenerife's geographical location and exposure to the descending Gulf Stream flow, the coastal waters in the selected zone experience waste impact at both local and global scales. However, the presence of marine litter deposited by ocean currents is at a micro level and falls outside the scope of this report. This study parameterised urban reality in study areas, and the presence of macro waste has been parameterised using standardised units of measurement. This enables the establishment of source measurements that will contribute to preventative measures against this type of coastal pollution. The interdependence between tourist zoning, civil seafront engineering works along the seafront, and marine litter presence in inaccessible and visible areas for tourists requires a methodology to better understand waste origin and loading areas. This knowledge is crucial for an effective local monitoring system. A quantitative overlay reading methodology has been designed in the urban setting through calculations of urban densities, while examining the waste in these areas' immediate infralittoral flooring through the use of visual underwater extraction. Anticipating the type and quantity of waste in each area will allow for the implementation of effective awareness, promoting action for preventative and corrective measures at the urban level. The results show a direct dependence between urban density and the presence of waste, as well as an equation that makes it possible to anticipate the amount of waste according to urban density and its relational vector. There is no discontinuity between them, as each area is affected by others to the extent that they establish the parametric continuity conditions determining each field. Therefore, it is possible to relate them beyond a one-on-one relationship. This approach fosters sustainable tourism development, reducing pressure on the sea and enhancing the utilisation of tourism revenues in measures to address waste-related challenges and promotes sustainable tourism development in Europe's coastal regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In June 2023, the second session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) to develop an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including the marine environment concluded. It provided an opportunity to gauge the progress made by States and other stakeholders towards agreeing on the potential objective and treaty architecture of a future plastics treaty which is planned to be agreed upon by the end of 2024. This brief intervention outlines the developments made, as well as potential contentious issues that have arisen in relation to procedural and substantive aspects of the negotiations. It also reflects on key highlights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mediterranean Sea is an almost completely closed basin connecting several countries. Its configuration leads to its peculiarity and richness, but the intensive activities within the basin and along the coast aggravate the ecological conditions. The existing regulatory European Framework for environmental protection has already been in place through a series of legal instruments for almost 20 years. In this context, open science could play a fundamental role. The existing data must become findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable (FAIR) to provide stakeholders and decision-makers with the instruments to understand how to improve the available information and support decisions based on the best set of existing information. Since 2009, the European Marine Observation and Data Network, EMODnet, has provided access to high-quality marine information supporting research and stakeholders' mission and objectives. Data related to pollution are collated, validated, and published using standard protocols, formats, and vocabularies, thus becoming FAIR. For marine litter, a detailed and qualified data management system for macro- and microlitter in diverse compartments was structured. Some of these data and metadata were already used to calculate the first coastline litter baselines based on harmonized and FAIR datasets (2012–2016). The availability of these data related to the Mediterranean area is relevant, but additional work is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study represents the first assessment of plastic waste within Posidonia spheroids on four sandy, Mediterranean beaches, each characterized by varying levels of anthropogenic influence. Fifty-five (68.7%) spheroids, out of eighty examined, included plastic litter. A total of 202 plastic items were isolated. Plastic abundance was 2.5 items/spheroid corresponding to 132 items per kilogram. The length of plastic items ranged from 0.1 to 50 mm. Fibers, tangled fibers and fragments were the most common shapes. The spheroids exhibited a substantial capacity for trapping plastic waste, with notable differences among the beaches. Our results underscore the significance of implementing a beach clean-up plan aimed at removing all spheroids to prevent them from disintegrating and releasing trapped plastic waste into the environment. Manual removal is recommended to safeguard the beaches, and this process should target all spheroids, regardless of their size. This study provides valuable insights that can inform marine litter monitoring programs, contribute to the development of tailored management measures, and support the implementation of specific action plans to mitigate Mediterranean microplastic pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine litter has been identified as one of major threats to marine ecosystems due to its environmental, economic, safety, health, and cultural impacts. The paper analyses the sources of marine litter and the obstacles to resolving the issue of pollution by marine litter. It addresses the quality of the national waste management concept as well as the efficiency of its implementation in the Republic of Croatia where the Adriatic Sea is subject to substantial pressure from littering. Resolving the problem of marine litter means adopting appropriate policy regarding waste generated at sea, marinas, cruising and fishing, and at land in line with circular economy principles. Findings of the study show that the country should be proactive in adopting policies to reduce and modify packaging and link the bioeconomy to the circular economy in achieving environmental and economic benefits in terms of materials and energy efficiency. Further research concerning all Mediterranean countries should integrate, in a holistic manner, municipal waste management, food packaging and food waste, marine litter, tourism, local agriculture, and local economies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an assessment of X-band radar’s detection capability to monitor Small Garbage Islands (SGIs), i.e., floating aggregations of marine litter consisting chiefly of plastic, under changing sea states. For this purpose, two radar measurement campaigns were carried out with controlled releases at sea of SGI modules assembled in the laboratory. One campaign was carried out with a calm sea and almost no wind in order to determine the X-band radar system’s detection capabilities in an ideal scenario, while the other campaign took place with rough seas and wind. An analysis of the data acquired during the campaigns confirmed that X-band radar can detect small aggregations of litter floating on the sea surface. To demonstrate the radar’s ability to detect SGIs, a statistical analysis was carried out to calculate the probability of false alarm and the probability of detection for two releases at two different distances from the radar. For greater readability of this work, all of the results obtained are presented both in terms of radar intensity and in terms of the radar cross-section relating to both the targets and the clutter. Another interesting study that is presented in this article concerns the measurement of the speed of movement (drift) of the SGIs compared with the measurement of the speed of the surface currents provided at the same time by the radar. The study also identified the radar detection limits depending on the sea state and the target distance from the antenna.

This study investigates the occurrence and characteristics of macroplastic and polymer microparticles in the Urias coastal lagoon’s beach sediments, in northwest Mexico. Coastal lagoons, productive and vulnerable ecosystems, are impacted significantly by anthropogenic activities, leadings to their pollution by various contaminants, including plastics. Our research involved sampling sediments from four sites within the lagoon that were influenced by different human activities such as fishing, aquaculture, thermoelectric power plant operations, industrial operations, and domestic wastewater discharge. Our methodology included collecting macroplastics and beach sediment samples, followed by laboratory analyses to identify the plastic debris’ size, shape, color, and chemical composition. The results indicated a notable presence of macroplastic items (144), predominantly bags, styrofoam, and caps made of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The polymer microparticles were mainly fibers, with cotton and polyester as the most common polymers, suggesting a significant contribution from clothing-related waste. The dominant colors of the microparticles were blue and transparent. High densities were observed in areas with slower water exchange. Our findings highlight the urgent need for better waste management practices to mitigate plastic pollution in coastal lagoons, preserving their ecological and economic functions.

Most advances in the remote sensing of floating marine plastic litter have been made using passive remote-sensing techniques in the visible (VIS) to short-wave-infrared (SWIR) parts of the electromagnetic spectrum based on the spectral absorption features of plastic surfaces. In this paper, we present developments of new and emerging remote-sensing technologies of marine plastic litter such as passive techniques: fluid lensing, multi-angle polarimetry, and thermal infrared sensing (TIS); and active techniques: light detection and ranging (LiDAR), multispectral imaging detection and active reflectance (MiDAR), and radio detection and ranging (RADAR). Our review of the detection capabilities and limitations of the different sensing technologies shows that each has their own weaknesses and strengths, and that there is not one single sensing technique that applies to all kinds of marine litter under every different condition in the aquatic environment. Rather, we should focus on the synergy between different technologies to detect marine plastic litter and potentially the use of proxies to estimate its presence. Therefore, in addition to further developing remote-sensing techniques, more research is needed in the composition of marine litter and the relationships between marine plastic litter and their proxies. In this paper, we propose a common vocabulary to help the community to translate concepts among different disciplines and techniques.