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The problem of assessing students' knowledge is gaining particular importance and relevance. The purpose of the study is to clarify the effectiveness and adequacy of examinations and the assessment of the knowledge of medical students with the help of an online platform through studying the opinions of teachers and students who participated in this process. The students and teachers took part in a hospital therapy exam on the Moodle platform and were subsequently interviewed to reveal their experience. The results of the study showed that according to 67% of students, the level of exam organization was acceptable. Thus, 59% of students positively assessed the process and structure of the exam and found them to be clear and convenient. The research describes a model for the exam organization and assessment in an online learning environment, which consists of two parts: theoretical and practical. Keywords: academic performance, distance learning, medical skills, online exams, testing students' knowledge.

One way or another, students face certain difficulties and disadvantages of distance learning. This can affect students physically and emotionally if appropriate measures are not taken. The solution might be the personalization of distance learning process, which implies the application of individual approaches to learning. The article aims to determine the academic performance of students who use the system of personalized distance learning Quiz Guide. For this study, 140 students were selected. The results of the performance analysis showed that the experimental group scored higher on the final test, indicating that students using the Quiz Guide learning system had significantly better academic achievement than those who took the traditional approach to learning. According to the post-test results, the control group scored (average) 65.14 points, the experimental group, 74.71. Keywords: Academic performance, computer learning system, individualized approach, personalized distance learning, Quiz Guide system.

A study was conducted on the buried soils identified at the base of the foundation of the Cabin of Peter the Great in Saint Petersburg, Russia, to help trace the Late Holocene landscape evolution in the lower reaches of the Neva River. The Cabin is a small wooden house, which was the first residence of Peter the Great in a newly emerged Saint-Petersburg. The house was built of pine logs on the Neva River's right bank. The time of its construction is now regarded as the city's founding date (1703). The pedocomplex with two buried soils has not been truncated and retains a record of the depositional environment, pedogenesis, vegetation history, and human activity before the construction of the city of Saint Petersburg. This pedocomplex was studied using various field and laboratory methods including soil morphology at macro-, meso-, and microlevels, and a full set of microbiomorphic analyses (diatoms, pollen, spores, phytoliths, plant detritus, and amorphous organic matter) supported by radiocarbon dating. The sediment sequence was formed in a contrasting depositional environment. The microbiomorphic studies indicated that the initial substrate was formed in aquatic environments. The analysis of diatoms suggested that these sediments were accumulated as a result of the River Neva breakthrough from Lake Ladoga to the Gulf of Finland ca 3500 yrs BP, which provided additional evidence for the River Neva formation. Soil analyses revealed two inundation events, with the earlier flood related to the termination of the Lake Ladoga transgression (LT) and the breakthrough of the Neva River, whereas the latter flood was likely to be connected with an increase of the fluvial activity. Those two inundation events were followed by two stages of pedogenesis. Both soils indicated the hiatus in sedimentation and were represented by Subquatic Umbric Gleysols that were the most widespread indigenous soils in the XVII century. The pollen data suggest that human impact started at ca 800 yrs BP and eventually resulted in the deforestation and the initial agricultural exploration of the study area. Saint Petersburg is the only large city in Russia that could be at risk from flooding if the sea level rises due to continuing global warming. Our research shows that the city's historical center was twice subjected to flooding in the Late Holocene, even without rises in the sea level. Therefore, the detailed analysis of the environmental dynamics within the Lower Neva area and the assessment of its possible consequences for the city are of great importance.

Since the second half of the XX century, the importance of social and humanitarian resources has been increasing. This process intensified in the XXI century, which is reflected in the sphere of international security. The study analyzes the mechanisms through which the social and humanitarian resources affect international security problems, solving or escalating them. If the Copenhagen School began to include the social and humanitarian phenomena in the security sphere, this research focuses on how social and humanitarian resources are used in the security sphere (including in the military field). At the same time, it claims that the growing involvement of social and humanitarian resources in security issues does not mean a decrease in the importance of military and political instruments. The author considers the evolution of the use of social and humanitarian resources in the field of international security from the Cold War period to the present. They show that, in general, the social and humanitarian resources are becoming more diverse in their tools, as well as more and more important in solving international security problems. They note that in conflict situations social and humanitarian resources are used in two ways: 1) for the peaceful settlement of conflicts and 2) in order to win. In addition to conflicts, social and humanitarian resources can also be applied to such areas of international security as terrorism, migration, biogenic threats, threats related.

Srednaya Akhtuba outcrop provides a detailed record of the Late Pleistocene continental and marine deposits and paleosols from MIS5 to MIS1. The MIS5 chronozone is presented by a continuous pedosedimentary sequence with three well-developed paleosols. The paper is based on the study of depositional environment and pedostratigraphy, with OSL chronological framework and precise altitude references. Field data are supported by chemical analyses, micromorphology, and clay mineralogy. A detailed study of MIS5 paleosols was first conducted for the Lower Volga area. Pedosedimentary sequence at that time developed on the river terrace in a backswamp and/or wetland influenced by extremely slow-moving stream after long seasonal floods. Thin loess layers were deposited during the brief episodes of low flood activity, while fluvial heavy loams – at the time of more intensive flooding. Mollic Gleysols and Fluvic Chernozems have been formed in the arid or semi-arid climate with seasonal freezing under productive wet meadows. Changes in the depositional environment resulted in the formation of welded paleosols, marked by textural difference, cryogenic levels, and accretionary humus horizons. Despite the complicated depositional pattern and the influence of seasonal floods, the MIS5 pedosedimentary sequence may serve as a good stratigraphic marker for the onset of Late Pleistocene allowing correlation with loess-paleosol sequences of the whole Ponto-Caspian region and linking it with the global stratigraphic schemes.

During the second half of the Holocene, the Russian Plain experienced several climatic oscillations giving rise to changing vegetation patterns. The spatial variability of vegetation changes and its effects on soils is still a matter of debate. In the present study landscape response to Holocene climatic cycles was analysed on the base of detailed morphological, chemical and microbiomorphic analyses of a paleosol buried under the kurgan of the Abashevo culture (Middle Bronze Age) and a surface soil. Both soils located at the Tokhmeyevo kurgan cemetery (the Middle Volga region, Chuvash Republic, Russia) developed from the same parent material (mantle loam), at the same elevation and in close proximity to each other. Both soils, classified as Retisols, show a similar morphology and key analytical features indicating similar environment. The pollen and phytolith spectra confirm that both buried and surface soils formed under similar forest vegetation. The buried and surface soils at the Tokhmeyevo cemetery could be compared with the previously studied soils of the Sareevo settlement of the Early Iron Age and the Taushkasy kurgan cemetery of the Bronze Age. These studies confirm the stability of the forest environment at the southern boundary of the forest belt since the Bronze Age. At the same time, the buried soil at the Tokhmeyevo cemetery has a thick mollic horizon and black organic coatings overlaying brown clay cutans in the argic horizons, which sets it apart from the surface soil. The radiocarbon dates for the humus in the mollic horizon and black coatings in the argic horizon are surprisingly close to each other (about 5.5 cal ka BP and 5.2 cal ka BP, respectively). The data indicate that the black cutans are derived from degradation of the mollic horizon caused by a sudden increase in humidity during the episodes of extreme summer rainfall events. Our study also prove that the Abashevo people had complicated burial funeral rites. The earth mounds are made of the upper horizons of soils cut off from the surface in the vicinity. The central part of the mound consists of soil bricks with albic material used for the interior, while artificially rumpled material of the argic horizon was used for coverage. The use of albic and artificially rumpled material of argic horizon for earth mound construction implies the similarity between the buried and surface soils since the Bronze Age until today. Thus, the study of such construction techniques is important both for archaeology and paleogeography (paleopedology).

StLFY-knockout potato plants were developed using CRISPR/Cas9 system. Inflorescences of edited plants transited to flowering, but inflorescence structures lacked flowers and were indeterminate, producing multiple shoot meristems. The tetraploid potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important agricultural crop worldwide. In this study, we used CRISPR/Cas9 to inactivate the potato homolog (StLFY) of the LEAFY gene-a key regulator of the transition to flowering and floral meristem identity-in a tetraploid potato cultivar. We achieved high rates of all-allelic knockouts. Frameshift indels led to phenotypic alterations, including indeterminate inflorescence development and the replacement of flowers with the leafy-like structures.

The article discusses the issue of creating an updated regional atlas of the Belgorod region—“Geographic atlas: nature, society, economy”. The cartographic work is an integral result of a deep analysis of modern natural conditions and resources, the economy and the population of the Belgorod region. The Atlas provides relevant geographic information, which made it possible to make the regional atlas one of the main tools of the information and educational environment, as well as a tool in the implementation of the sustainable development policy of the region. The Geographic Atlas: Nature, Society, Economy was created by a team of scientists from the Institute of Earth Sciences of the Belgorod State National Research University with the involvement of specialized specialists with the financial support of the Russian Geographical Society. The article describes in detail the stages of creating an atlas: information-analytical accumulative; preparatory cartographic; cartographic; design; publishing. The structure of the regional atlas is given. All maps in the atlas are combined into 4 sections: “Introductory Section”, “Nature”, “Population”, “Economy”, they are consistent and complement each other. A number of thematic maps, placed in the Atlas, were built for the Belgorod Region for the first time. The atlas contains 76 thematic maps built in the ArcGIS 10.4.1 environment. When creating atlas maps, modern techniques and methods of geoinformation mapping were applied. The published “Geographic Atlas of the Belgorod Region: Nature, Society, Economy” is both a scientific work and an educational reference manual, and is intended for a wide range of users: from school and university students to highly specialized specialists of various levels.

The concept of sustainable development has become the basis for the future of humanity, and one of the tools for achieving it is green economy, which needs to be evaluated by offering certain methods of measurement. The purpose of this work is a comparative analysis of the most well-known methods for evaluating the implementation of the green economy concept at the national and regional levels, identifying their advantages and disadvantages. The analysis of foreign and domestic literature has shown that two types of integral indices are used mainly to measure the “greening” of economy: indices whose constituent elements require normalization (The Global Green Economy Index, The Index of the Green Economy, The Green Growth Index, The Ecological Footprint) and the indices that comprise the indicators which have a common unit of measurement (The Index of Adjusted Net Savings, “Green GDP”). As a result of the research, it was found that the normalized indices do not fully meet the criteria for aggregate indicators presented by the OECD. In addition, all the considered methods allow only to reflect trends towards the transition to a green economy, but not to assess the degree of its implementation. Further research will develop a set of indicators that can be used to characterize not only trends, but also the specific stage of transition to a green economy.

We made a comprehensive mineralogical and micromorphological study of soils in the area with unexpressed microrelief (nano-depressions with a height difference of 5-10 cm). The soils are located on the territory of the Urdinsko-Torgunskaya elevated flat plain (+32 m A.S.L.) in the northern part of the Caspian lowland.In solonetz at a depth of 46 cm appear Fe-Mn patches, carbonate formations and gleying indicators. Salinization begins at a depth of 25 cm. In kastanozem humus cutans and streaks along large pores appear from 30 cm. Carbonate formations appear at 50 cm and below they are represented by white carbonate soft spots. The soil is washed from salts up to 200 cm.Clay fraction (Reconstruction. During the recession of the Early Khvalyn Caspian Sea, the coastline had a heterogenic relief inherited from the unevenness of the seabed with saline sediments. Then the subaerial development of the surface at the site of kastanozem there was a slight depression, which was gradually washed out of salts due to atmospheric precipitation more intensively than the surrounding area. First halophytic vegetation began to grow here. During the rewinding of the material this vegetation trapped aeolian material and then micro-elevation formed. The duration of subaerial development determines the development of the soil humus horizon on this elevation. On this eolian elevation at the microlevel we found signs of soil formation at a depth of 55-60 cm. On the surrounding flat surface, there was a hydromorphic gypsum-bearing solonchak where remained a large number of gypsum formations from a depth of 120 cm in the profile of the modern solonetz. Then the surface was overlain by aeolian sediment with a different ratio of mineral phases. Relative to the modern surface the thickness of the sediment is 50 cm, and on the surrounding surface with modern solonetz is 120 cm. In this surface illite began to dominate over the mixed-layer phase in clay, which indicates a different source of material drift. In this upper eolian sediment, modern solonetz began to form with the local development of kastanozem in nano-depressions due to subsidence of the surface during compaction of the most biogenically aggregated material.In combination with micromorphological studies, the analysis of the properties of the solonetz complexes allows us to conclude that the modern soils in this area are shallowly buried paleosols. The mineralogical and micromorphological features diagnose modern soils as a pedocomplex.This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation, grant №21-74-20121.

The paper analyzes the teaching experiment regarding the use of mobile apps in the assessment of student learning. The study involved survey and self-description methods offered to students and instructors to assess the effectiveness of using mobile apps in learning. The study was conducted among 320 s-year students of the I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University and 8 instructors between September 1 and December 28, 2021, during the academic semester. Socrative and Plickers apps have been found to contribute to: better learning (φ* = 8.94, p ≤ 0.01); developing cognitive motivation among students resulting from diverse learning resources used with apps (φ* = 7.6, p ≤ 0.01); convenience of learning activities because students can work with the app both in the classroom and at home (φ* = 13.66, p ≤ 0.01); improved digital competence (φ* = 2.4, p ≤ 0.05). The research findings can be used by instructors in universities and secondary schools. Since didactic opportunities offered by mobile apps are quite significant, and considering other positive results of their use, this technology may be considered as an important tool for training young people and strengthening their cognitive motivation.

By the end of XX–the beginning of XXI century the importance of humanitarian and social issues in the world has sharply increased. Humanitarian and social means began to be intensively included in military and economic actions and play a significant independent role. As a result, there was an increase in the importance of “soft security” aspects, and an expansion of this field. This has affected the UN Security Council, which began to pay more attention to humanitarian and social issues, which was demonstrated with the statistical method. The range of humanitarian issues discussed by the Security Council and the list of actors sponsoring resolutions on humanitarian issues has expanded. In the late 1990s–early 2000s the Council begins to consider large amount of humanitarian issues: security issues of individuals in armed conflicts (civilians, children, women, UN and humanitarian personnel); civilian aspects of conflict management and peacebuilding; and separate issues of “soft security” (humanitarian assistance and such “soft threats” to security as HIV/AIDS epidemics, food crises and climate change). In addition, the Council also addresses human rights violations. The promotion of humanitarian issues in the Council on separate occasions was facilitated by high-ranking officials who put a premium on humanitarian issues; various UN bodies and organizations, mainly with humanitarian mandates; some non-permanent members of the Security Council who wanted to leave their mark in the Council’s history; various NGOs. In turn, some countries opposed the adoption of measures that they consider to be within the internal competence of their states. At the same time, the expansion of humanitarian and social problems in the world poses a dilemma for the Security Council: whether to include the entire range of these issues on the agenda, or it is beyond the scope of the Council’s mandate. There is no definite answer here. On the one hand, the world is moving along the path of strengthening humanitarian problems and its ever-greater involvement in security issues. On the other hand, an expanded interpretation of security can impede the work of the Council.

Genetic polymorphism has been analyzed in Kochia prostrata populations growing on different soils with contrasting salt contents in eight variants of desert steppe plant communities. All the populations are characterized by a deficiency of heterozygotes (11.1–77.5%), with populations growing on different soil types showing significant differences in the level of observed heterozygosity. Significant genetic differentiation between two populations on dark-humus solonchaks indicates that soil conditions may have an effect not only on the level of diversity but also on the genetic structure of populations.

The article considers international negotiations as a resource of influence and creation in world politics, which is part of the social and humanitarian resource. The article analyzes the negotiation practice and research of international negotiations, starting from the second half of the twentieth century, i.e. from the moment when international negotiations receive intensive development. It is shown that at this time a huge practical and research experience was accumulated on the technology of negotiations, the role and place of negotiations in the world, which made up a social and humanitarian resource for world politics. At the end of the twentieth – beginning of the twentieth centuries there is a decline in negotiation activity and, accordingly, decline research on international negotiations, which was caused by: 1) a change in the nature of conflicts that have largely ceased to be interstate in nature and which began to arise on ethnic and religious grounds with many decentralized participants; 2) a significant reduction in the role of Russian-American relations in the world after the collapse of the USSR. Namely, the Russian-American negotiations, primarily in the field of disarmament, were the most important in international relations of the second half of the twentieth century. As a result, in the 21 st century, the number of international negotiations not only decreased, but treaties reached in the past began to be denounced, primarily by the United States. It is shown that this situation is caused by deep processes of transformation of the political organization of the world, covering its various levels, both national and supranational. As a result, a situation of uncertainty and unpredictability is created, which does not contribute to the search for negotiated solutions. However, the political organization of the world can only be transformed through negotiations. Given the scale of this transformation and the huge number of actors in the modern world, international negotiations will become of great importance, serving as a resource for building a new political organization of the world.

The imbalance between the speed and accuracy of cognitive-motor operations can lead to the formation of abnormal behavioral programs fraught with serious negative consequences for the individual. For successful correction and prevention of social disadaptation in adolescents with nervous and mental diseases and functional disorders in mental sphere in general education schools, the peculiarities of their psychomotor activity should be taken into account. We measured some parameters of visual-motor coordination and sensorimotor reaction in adolescents with mental disorders with (n = 36) or without (n = 27) organic brain damage. Adolescents from both groups showed higher speed, but poorer accuracy and smoothness, of movements than typically developing students (n = 70). The visual and acoustic reaction times were longer in adolescents with mental disorders without organic brain damage than in reference groups.

The emergence of carbapenem-resistant hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumoniae (CR-hvKp) is a new threat to healthcare. In this study, we analyzed nine CR-hvKp isolates of different sequence-types (ST) recovered from patients with nosocomial infections in two hospitals in Saint Petersburg. Whole-genome sequencing showed that eight of them harbored large mosaic plasmids carrying resistance to carbapenems and hypervirulence simultaneously, and four different types of hybrid plasmids were identified. BLAST analysis showed a high identity with two hybrid plasmids originating in the UK and Czech Republic. We demonstrated that hybrid plasmids emerged due to the acquisition of resistance genes by virulent plasmids. Moreover, one of the hybrid plasmids carried a novel New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase (NDM) variant, differing from NDM-1 by one amino acid substitution (D130N), which did not provide significant evolutionary advantages compared to NDM-1. The discovery of structurally similar plasmids in geographically distant regions suggests that the actual distribution of hybrid plasmids carrying virulence and resistance genes is much wider than expected.

Major international events contribute to guiding IR scholarship's interests, yet it remains surprisingly unexplored how transformative political events affect international relations as an academic field. This article focuses on the linkage between key global moments and the institutional factors that condition IR scholarship, focusing on the important yet under-explored intervening elements in the interrelation between political events and academic practice. The article defines the utility of such focus and illustrates it with case studies of three central parties to the Cold War conflict: Russia as representative of the Eastern bloc, Canada of the Western alliance, and Switzerland as a neutral polity. This article shows how institutional factors such as funding schemes, the marketization of education, and the creation of new IR departments operate as effective “hinges” exerting significant influence over the ways scholars develop ideas about international relations.

The aim of this study was to develop an approach to assessing the impact of rill erosion on aggregates of typical chernozem aggregates in a laboratory experiment with flume. Aggregates from the plow horizons of noneroded and moderately eroded typical chernozem (Haplic Chernozem (Loamic, Aric, Pachic) and Haplic Chernozem (Loamic, Aric)) of Kursk region (Russia) were analyzed. Micromorphometric parameters of the aggregates of the same sizes untreated by water and transported by water flow were statistically compared. These aggregates were initially air-dry or capillary-wetted. Photos of thin sections were processed using Skyscan CT-analyser program to obtain quantitative micromorphometric parameters: form factor (FF) and roundness (Rdn). Then, the coefficient of aggregate surface unevenness (U) was calculated. As a result, it was found that aggregates from the noneroded soil changed stronger under the influence of a shallow-water flow, if the soil before the experiment was dry. This was confirmed by significant statistical differences in all the studied parameters. The change in parameters of aggregates from the moderately eroded typical chernozem depended on the soil structure rather than on the sample moistening before the experiment. A comparison of aggregates treated with shallow-water flow showed that their characteristics are affected both by the initial state of the soil and by the degree of its erosion. The degree of roundness was the most representative parameter, as the largest number of statistically significant differences was found.

espanolEl articulo analiza la composicion y microestructura del Horizonte vesicular Av (Aye), que consiste en la corteza superficial diagnostica y el barniz del desierto (laca) de suelos, formados sobre diferentes rocas madres y llanuras fanaluvial y antigua en condiciones extremadamente aridas de Asia Central (Transaltai Gobi, Mongolia) y America del Norte (Mojave, Estados Unidos). Se aplico una amplia gama de metodos. Entre ellos, descripciones morfologicas y micromorfologicas, microscopia electronica de exploracion, analisis electronico de microsondas y microtomografia, y tambien los metodos fisicos y quimicos tradicionales. Los datos mostraron que laca del desierto (barniz del desierto) tiene la misma composicion y la relacion relativa de los elementos (Fe/Ti y Mn/Ba) independientemente de la composicion inicial de las rocas madres y de la ubicacion geografica de las regiones estudiadas. Las propiedades hidrofisicas especificas del horizonte cortical superficial, sobre todo su baja permeabilidad al agua, pueden explicarse debido al dominio absoluto de los poros cerrados (vesiculares) aislados identificados por la micromorfologia y confirmados por la microtomografia. Explicamos el proceso de formacion de suelos -formacion conjunta de la corteza ligera, superficial y vesicular y tambien la laca oscura del desierto (barniz del desierto)- como un mecanismo hidrofisico- biogeoquimico causante de un aumento de la actividad microbiologica y procesos fisico-quimicos despues de las lluvias raras y fuertes en temporada calurosa. La evidencia de este fenomeno radica en la evolucion de las zonas empobrecidas de hierro alrededor de los poros. Al mismo tiempo, Mn2+ esta sujeto a la movilizacion en el horizonte de la corteza y luego se mueve hacia arriba a la superficie con flujos de humedad capilar y de pelicula contra el gradiente gravitacional seguido de la fijacion en la barrera de oxigeno. La recuperacion de sulfatos (sulfatreduccion) se confirma indirectamente mediante la movilizacion de Ba2+, que se encuentra inmovil en la presencia de sulfatos. Estos elementos (Mn y Ba) se acumulan en la parte inferior de las peliculas de doble capa, las cuales estan en los microcavidades sobre los lados superiores de los fragmentos de roca del puente desertico en las areas investigadas. Las peliculas sobre los lados inferiores y la parte superior de los fragmentos de roca, estan enriquecidas con Fe y Ti y, por lo tanto, adquieren colores rojizos. Sugerimos llamar a este proceso ‘criptosolodizacion’, a pesar de su caracter a corto plazo(explosivo). Incluye 5 etapas: (1) recuperacion de Fe, Mn y sulfatos con la movilizacion de Ba2+ de BaSO4 , (2) deposicion de FeS y migracion de Ba2+ y Mn2+ a la superficie de la roca, (3) coprecipitacion de Ba y Mn en la barrera combinada de oxigeno-sorcion, (4) oxidacion S2- a SO4 2- con la movilizacion de Ti2+ de TiO2 y (5) la oxidacion Ti2+ y Fe2+ y su coprecipitacion en forma de oxidos/hidroxidos TiO2 y Fe(OH)3. EnglishThe composition and microfabric of the Av diagnostic surface horizon (crust) and desert varnish of soils formed on various parent materials covering ancient alluvial fans in extremely arid deserts of Central Asia (Trans-Altai Gobi, Mongolia) and North America (Mojave, USA) are analysed. Application of a wide range of methods—morphological and micromorphological descriptions, scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe analysis and microtomography, together with traditional physicochemical methods— has shown that desert varnish retains the same composition and relative contents of elements (Fe/Ti and Mn/Ba) independently from the initial composition of parent materials and geographical location of the studied regions. The absolute dominance of isolated closed (vesicular) pores, identified by micromorphology and confirmed by microtomography, can account for specific hydrophysical properties of the crust horizon; that is, low water-holding capacity and permeability. We explain both phenomena of desert pedogenesis—light-coloured crust horizon and dark-coloured desert varnish—the burst of microbiological activity and physicochemical processes after rare but heavy showers during the hot season. The development of iron-depleted zones around pores is considered the evidence of that phenomenon. Consequently, we propose that Mn2+ undergoes mobilization within the crust horizon, followed by its upward migration with capillary and film moisture flows, against the gravity gradient to the surface of desert pavement with its subsequent fixation at the oxygen barrier. The processes of sulphate reduction are indirectly confirmed by the mobilization of Ba2+, which is immobile in the presence of sulphates. These elements (Mn and Ba) accumulate within the lower part of two-layer films. These films are located in microcavities on the upper sides of rock fragments of desert pavements in the studied regions. Films on lower sides of rock fragments and the upper part of those two-layered films are enriched in Fe and Ti, and therefore acquire reddish-brownish colours. Despite its transitory character, the process, which we suggest to call ‘cryptosolodization’, includes five stages: (1) Fe, Mn and sulphate reduction with mobilization of Ba2+ from BaSO4, (2) precipitation of FeS and migration of Ba2+ and Mn2+ to the stone surface, (3) coprecipitation of Ba and Mn at a combined oxygen-sorption barrier, (4) oxidation of S2- to SO4 2- with mobilization of Ti2+ from TiO2 and (5) oxidation of Ti2+ and Fe2+ and their coprecipitation in the form of oxides/ hydroxides TiO2 and Fe(OH)3.

The soils of Russian Altai highlands were used as a paleoenvironmental archive, as a source of dating material, and as a chronostratigraphic marker to describe Holocene environmental change in the studied area. Based on calibration intervals of 14C dates obtained for buried humus horizons (11 buried soils in 6 studied soil-sedimentary sequences) and some dates from pendants of contemporary soils, following stages of pedogenesis were recorded in studied soil-sedimentary systems and surface soils: 6.4 – 11.5 ky cal BP; about 4.9-5.3 cal BP; 2.5-3.8 cal BP; 0.6 – 1.2 cal BP. All studied surface soils in the basins nowadays develop in cold, ultra-continental water deficit conditions: Skeletic Kastanozems Cambic, Skeletic Cambisols Protocalcic, Skeletic Cambic Calcisol Yermic. The most extreme conditions of soil formation within Holocene were within the last 1-2 kyr. All buried soils were formed in better conditions, more balanced in water, with higher biological activity, mostly within steppe or forest-steppe landscapes. Cryogenic features had been insisting all over the Holocene till nowadays. Water demandant cryogenic features are met in buried soils up to the age of 1-2 ky cal BP. In the last millennia cryogenic processes are suppressed, water demandant features gave way to those which can be formed in contemporary water deficit conditions: simple fissures, frost sorting, and shattering. At lower levels (Kuraj basin) more or less arid cold steppe conditions insisted within the most part of Holocene. Initial stages of soil formation were often ground water affected, or at least shortly waterlogged. At the highest positions humid and relatively warm Early Holocene stage of forest pedogenesis is recorded for the beginning of Holocene, and a Late Holocene (last 3-4 kyr) cold humid phase, presumably under mountain tundra and/or alpines. Microsedimentary intra-soil record in carbonate-humus pendants imprints fine fluctuations of soil water regime at initial stages of soil formation, controlled by local topography, and climatic changes in the second half of Holocene. General trends of environmental changes in the region recorded in soil and soil sedimentary systems are in well correspondence with other records of paleonvironment. © 2018, Lomonosov Moscow State University. All rights reserved. This study in its theoretical foundation and part of analytics was supported by state assignment project 0148-2016-0002, it also was partly funded by RFBR (field studies in different years were financially supported by grants 16-05-01035, and 17-04-01526; micromorphological studies – 17-04-01526, analytic studies - 17-04-01526, and 18-05-00998).

Landscape response to Late Holocene climatic cycles is based on detailed hierarchical morphological, analytical and micro-biomorphic research of a soil chronosequence which included a soil buried under a fortification earth wall of the Early Iron Age (Luvic Chernozem) and a surface soil (Chernic Greyzemic Luvic Phaeozem) in the southern forest-steppe area of the East European Plain. Both soils formed on similar surfaces with the same lithology (non-carbonate loess underlain by carbonate loess), at the same elevation, and in close proximity to each other. The buried soil was truncated by at 40 cm and transformed by diagenesis. Taking this into account it was possible to reconstruct the soil formed by the time of burial under the earth wall and to classify it as (Chernic) Luvic Phaeozem. Both surface and buried soils are polygenetic combining the features of humid (forest?) and steppe pedogenesis. The radiocarbon data obtained from the Humic horizon of the buried soil (6750 ± 120 years CalBP) allows bracketing the steppe environment to the mid-Holocene (Atlantic period). Pedogenetic evolution since the Early Iron Age included the next stage of clay illuviation (formation of thin hypo-coatings.) and the development of Greyzemic features. The studied Phaeozems indicate relative landscape stability at the southern boundary of the forest-steppe zone.