Search

Risks associated with public health have no borders, as the recent Corona virus (COVID-19) pandemic developing during the course of the workshop,clearly demonstrated. Thus,the challenges climate change pose to society and especially to public health can only be properly met with inter-disciplinary regional collaborations. In January 27-28, 2020, the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Climate Change Adaptation Center (RCCAC) conducted a successful workshop hosted by the Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Italy. This workshop initiated the cooperation of a regional community of climate, public health and policy scientists to collaborate on the health-related aspects of climate change in the Eastern Mediterranean. Scientists from Jordan, the Palestinian Authority, Israel, Cyprus, Germany and Italy participated and presented their state-of-the-art disciplinary research. The outcomes of the workshop laid the ground for close interdisciplinary regional collaboration, which will benefit the people of this vulnerable region.

Distance learning is assuming a greater value in professional training both because of its lower cost compared to face-to-face learning and for the opportunities it provides in periods when trainee displacement is hindered by socio-political or health emergencies (e.g. the recent covid-19 pandemic). Moreover, distance learning allows us to create lasting learning resources that otherwise would not be continuously available for trainees. During recent years, the World Meteorological Organization invested human and financial resources in the development of the Global Campus initiative, which has virtual spaces where learning materials and opportunities are gathered and made available to users. As part of the Global Campus initiative, the Regional Training Center in Italy, with the support of the Italian Ministries of Foreign Affairs, developed several distance learning packages among which the TOPaCS (Training Operational Package For Climate Services) addresses the training needs of Climate Services Professionals in sub-Saharan Africa. TOPaCS builds on the competency-based training approach and on the application of up-to-date training solutions such as the integrated use of different multimedia supports and the use of Open Badges to certify learning. Synchronous distance learning was also tested for teaching soft skills related to climate services communication. This contribution analyzes pros and cons of distance learning approaches, comparing synchronous and asynchronous solutions and their suitability for hard and soft skills teaching. It highlights opportunities and constraints, critical points and key strategic choices in the development of distance learning. The results of the study highlight that flexible solutions and versatile approaches allow personalized training paths according to end-user needs. Asynchronous microlearning (very small units of study) can be helpful in this perspective but it may result in the atomization of the training modules and the fragmentation of education pathways. Synchronous distance learning is often more appropriate for soft skills but requires larger development efforts and more efficient technical solutions (e.g. higher bandwidth), which can be an issue in some developing countries.

The whole Mediterranean is suffering today because of climate changes, with projections of more severe impacts predicted for the coming decades. Egypt, on the southeastern flank of the Mediterranean Sea, is facing many challenges for water and food security, further exacerbated by the arid climate conditions. The Nile River represents the largest freshwater resource for the country, with a minor contribution coming from rainfall and from non-renewable groundwater aquifers. In more recent years, another important source is represented by non-conventional sources, such as treated wastewater reuse and desalination, these water resources are increasingly becoming valuable additional contributors to water availability. Moreover, although rainfall is scarce in Egypt, studies have shown that rainfall and flash floods can become an additional available source of water in the future. While presently rare, heavy rainfalls and flash floods are responsible for huge losses of lives and infrastructure especially in parts of the country, such as in the Sinai Peninsula. Despite the harsh climate, water from these events, when opportunely conveyed and treated, can represent a precious source of freshwater for small communities of Bedouins. In this work, rainfall climatology and flash flood events are presented, together with a discussion about the dynamics of some selected episodes and indications about future climate scenarios. Results can be used to evaluate the water harvesting potential in a region where water is scarce, also providing indications for improving the weather forecast. Basic information needed for identifying possible risks for population and infrastructures, when fed into hydrological models, could help to evaluate the flash flood water volumes at the outlets of the effective watershed(s). This valuable information will help policymakers and local governments to define strategies and measures for water harvesting and/or protection works.

During the World Climate Conference-3, Capacity Development has been acknowledged as a transversal component underpinning all the other Pillars of the Global Framework for Climate Services. Within the Mediterranean basin, the interest of climate services based on seasonal climate forecasts is rising because they provide an opportunity for developing a proactive approach towards water management. In 2014, the Regional Training Center (RTC) in Italy, in agreement with World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and member countries of Region I and VI, identified seasonal climate forecasts as a strategic subject of capacity development for the Mediterranean Region. Following design-based research methods, this paper presents the evolution of the training approaches adopted, from classroom lessons to a blend of practical and theoretical classroom and distance learning. This evolution, as well as the rising satisfaction of trainees' expectations encouraged WMO and the RTC to widen the spectrum of beneficiaries and to make the resulting course materials available for other regions and RTCs as a course package. The course package provides essential guidelines to facilitate adoption and adaptation of the course by different institutions and instructors, including those in other WMO Regions, based on regional or institutional learning needs and standards, while also serving the needs of individual learners.

The West African monsoon (WAM) originates in the Gulf of Guinea when the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) makes its landfall; whilst, the south Asian monsoon (SAM) originates in the Indian ocean when the ITCZ crosses the equator. The monsoonal dynamics are here studied after landfall using Gill’s tropospheric model with an implanted Ekman frictional layer (EFL). Ekman pumping increases low level convergence, making the lower monsoonal cyclone deeper and more compact that the upper anticyclone, by transferring tropospheric vorticity into the EFL. In the upper troposphere, air particles spiral-out anticyclonically away from the monsoons, subsiding over the Tropical Atlantic, the Tropical Indian ocean, or transiting into the southern hemisphere across the equator. Whilst marine air particles spiral-in cyclonically towards the WAM or the SAM, the latter appears to be a preferred ending destination in the absence of orography. The Himalayas introduced as a barrier to the monsoonal winds, strengthen the tropospheric winds by tightening the isobars. The Somali mountains (SMs), introduced as a barrier to the Ekman winds, separates the WAM and the SAM catch basins; thus, the Atlantic air particles converge towards the WAM and the Indian ocean particles converge towards the SAM. The Indian Ghats (IGs), introduced as a semi-impermeable barrier to the Ekman winds, deflect the marine air particles originated in the western Indian ocean towards the south-eastern flank of the SAM. In short, an upper single anticyclone encircles both monsoons; the Himalayas strengthen the upper-level winds by increasing the pressure gradients; the SMs split the EFL cyclone, keeping the marine air particles to the west of SMs in the WAM basin and the particles to the east of SMs in the SAM basin; the IGs guides transmit the air particles, deflecting them towards Bangladesh.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to assess the spatial and temporal variations of extreme hot days (H*) and heat wave frequencies across Iran. Design/methodology/approach The authors used daily maximum temperature (Tmax) data of 27 synoptic stations in Iran. These data were standardized using the mean and the standard deviation of each day of the year. An extreme hot day was defined when the Z score of daily maximum temperature of that day was equal or more than a given threshold fixed at 1.7, while a heat wave event was considered to occur when the Z score exceeds the threshold for at least three continuous days. According to these criteria, the annual frequency of extreme hot days and the number of heat waves were determined for all stations. Findings The trend analysis of H* shows a positive trend during the past two decades in Iran, with the maximum number of H* (110 cases) observed in 2010. A significant trend of the number of heat waves per year was also detected during 1991-2013 in all the stations. Overall, results indicate that Iran has experienced heat waves in recent years more often than its long-term average. There will be more frequent and intense hot days and heat waves across Iran until 2050, due to estimated increase of mean air temperature between 0.5-1.1 and 0.8-1.6 degree centigrade for Rcp2.6 and Rcp8.8 scenarios, respectively. Originality/value The trend analysis of hot days and heat wave frequencies is a particularly original aspect of this paper. It is very important for policy- and decision-makers especially in agriculture and health sectors of Iran to make some adaptation strategies for future frequent and intense hot days over Iran.

The chapter is a contribution to the 70th Anniversary of the World Meteorological Organization, illustrating the history and milestones of the WMO Regional Training Center operated by CNR-IBE: 35 years of collaboration between the WMO Regional Training Center in Italy and WMO in education and training

In developing countries, and particularly in West Africa, the role of Climate Services (CS) for sustainable development is growing thanks to wide spreading collaboration among European institutions, including National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHS) research centers, universities, and homologue local institutions. Operationally, the implementation of CSs in developing countries is mainly pivoted on NMHS, which, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), are dramatically affected by unmet learning demand. The global scale of learning needs for co-development of CSs calls for innovative solutions and a range of flexible modalities to reach learners in a variety of ways, and for sharing resources and successful strategies within the global education and training community. In order to harmonize expected learning outcomes, WMO defined a competency framework (CF) for CSs to be used in the implementation of training initiatives and knowledge sharing tools. This paper presents the strategic and methodological approach adopted in the implementation of the TOPaCS, a new knowledge-based distance learning initiative, aiming to provide a flexible learning environment within the CSs CF of WMO ensuring coherence with other WMO education initiatives (Global Campus, other RTCs, etc.). The methodological approach adopted is based on the competency-based approach to training, where competencies are composed by elements of knowledge and skill. TOPaCS integrates the WMO CF for CSs into a taxonomy co-designed with stakeholders at different levels, and allows the definition of learning paths, which are a further interactive opportunity for co-development of CSs within the TOPaCS learning ecosystem. Indeed, the approach aims also to guide further instructional strategies and assessments and becomes a starting point to build a common language enabling a better cooperation and exchange between the different CSs training initiatives.

The content and capacity-building relevance of a training programme on Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture (PACC-RRC) conducted by the Institute of BioEconomy, a WMO Regional Training Centre (RTC) in Italy, are described and evaluated in this chapter. The training was delivered to staff members of technical services in West African countries. The innovative method adopted for the training consisted of three consecutive phases: a distance learning pre-course (DLC) phase, a classroom course phase, which consisted of a blend of theoretical and practical sessions, and a post-course phase. Each of the three phases presented strengths and weaknesses to be considered when planning future training programmes. Participants found the comprehensive training experience to be an important step towards improving knowledge and skills that would enable them to be more effective in supporting the farming community to reduce the impact and risk of climate change and disasters in agricultural practices in their respective countries. Overall, the three-phase solution was considered very effective by participants, and they made good use of knowledge acquired during DLC and classroom course in their post-course activities. In order to build long-term sustainability of the project results, the learning materials developed within the project will be catalogued, each module classified on the basis of the competency addressed, reorganized and finally made available for further use by different institutions. The reorganization of the resources collected will involve the creation of course packages (for example, the Training and Operational Principles (T.O.P) Seasonal Forecast Course Package) to be shared.

Although the effects of hailstorms usually interest limited areas, the damages can be severe. These, damages can be potentially reduced by a reliable hailstorm forecast. In Italy, only few regions have a network for monitoring hail events, the coverage of these networks is limited to small areas, and long-term and nationwide time series of hail events are not available, therefore the chances of improving the quality of the hail forecast are severely reduced. The aim of the present study is to collect data and information from different sources on hailstorms in order to evaluate the annual hailstorm frequency in Italy. In order to obtain more complete information about the hail distribution, different datasets have been used: i) daily information about hailstorm occurrence at fixed meteorological stations from the NCDC dataset; ii) events information (date, location, and hailstone size) obtained using hailstorm reports available from different agencies. In this study the hail events are classified according to the hailstone size, then a statistical approach is used in order to evaluate the mean annual frequency of the events at the municipality scale for each hailstone size class. The atmospheric parameters, known as hailstorm precursors, are estimated using the NCEP/NCAR daily reanalysis at 2.5 degree horizontal resolution. As a final result, this study presents a step forward towards a climatology of hail frequency in Italy at municipality scale for the period 1971–2009.

Diplomazia2 is framed within the program "Science for Diplomacy: Multi-disciplinary Training Program", and it is the result of closer and more mature collaboration between the Directorate General for Cooperation on Development of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation (MAECI), the Italian Agency for Cooperation on Development (AICS) and the National Research Council (CNR). The implementation of joint projects such as DIPLOMAzia2 highlights the effectiveness of the diplomacy-science partnership as the driving force behind the achievement of relevant goals jointly pursued by the international community.

Si presenta il lungo processo di un Tavolo di lavoro che ha portato alla creazione di uno schema di certificazione di terza parte delle figure professionali del meteorologo e del tecnico meteorologo. Questo schema, ormai noto come schema DEKRA di certificazione, in quanto è DEKRA Testing & Certification che ha gestito questo iter, dalla valutazione dei titoli fino al rilascio del certificato professionale, consente al professionista di avere una visibilità internazionale riconosciuta del proprio lavoro collocandosi al livello degli altri professionisti dell'Unione Europea, permettendogli di cogliere più ampie opportunità di mercato. Il processo ha richiesto tempi lunghi, quasi tre anni, per poter accordare i diversi aspetti del settore meteorologico, coinvolgendo la formazione accademica, l'associazionismo internazionale, la formazione dell'Organizzazione Mondiale della Meteorologia (WMO), le figure che operano nelle Istituzioni della meteorologia e, in particolare, la figura dell'Ufficio del Rappresentante Permanente presso il WMO che ricopre il ruolo fondamentale di indirizzo e garanzia del rispetto delle raccomandazioni internazionali. In questo lavoro si analizzano tutti i passaggi chiave necessari per la messa a punto dello schema che rappresenta oggi un obiettivo di qualità per tutti i professionisti del settore meteorologico.

Using 6-year data collected in a high-resolution network of 19 stations in the province of Alicante (Spain), the characteristics of sea breezes for the period 2000–2005 were studied. This study attempts to develop a multi-year climatology of sea breeze flows focusing on a Western Mediterranean coastal site. We used half-hourly meteorological records from a reference station in Alicante and sea surface temperature measurements at Albufereta beach to identify past sea breeze episodes, on the basis of an objective selection technique. A total of 475 sea breeze events during the 6-year period were identified and the following parameters were determined: mean time of onset, mean wind speed and direction at the time of onset, mean time of cessation, mean temporal dimension (duration), mean maximum velocity, mean time of maximum velocity and mean wind path of the sea breeze. The mean onset and cessation times are 0940 UTC and 2009 UTC (local standard time = UTC + 0100 h, or + 0200 h with daylight-saving time), respectively, with a mean duration of 1029 h. The mean wind speed at the time of the passage of sea breeze fronts is low (2.07 m s−1), but sea breeze gust intensities range from 3.6 to 11.6 m s−1 and they generally occur during 1200–1300 UTC. Southerly and southeasterly onset flows dominate in winter, whereas more easterly onsets occur in spring and summer. The mean inland directed wind path of the sea breezes is 97.7 km with noteworthy differences throughout the year; a case study showed onshore wind peaks of 11.1 m s−1, 50-km inland of the Vinalopo river valley in the late afternoon. The spatial and temporal change in wind speed and direction were also analysed, using multi-year wind hodographs for the 19 stations and eight well-defined synoptic patterns favouring the development of sea breezes. Copyright © 2009 Royal Meteorological Society

In this study, spatial and temporal patterns of changes in extreme events of temperature and precipitation at 143 weather stations in ten Asia-Pacific Network (APN) countries and their associations with changes in climate means are examined for the 1955–2007 period. Averaged over the APN region, annual frequency of cool nights (days) has decreased by 6.4 days/decade (3.3 days/decade), whereas the frequency of warm nights (days) has increased by 5.4 days/decade (3.9 days/decade). The change rates in the annual frequency of warm nights (days) over the last 20 years (1988–2007) have exceeded those over the full 1955–2007 period by a factor of 1.8 (3.4). Seasonally, the frequencies of summer warm nights and days are changing more rapidly per unit change in mean temperatures than the corresponding frequencies for cool nights and days. However, normalization of the extreme and mean series shows that the rate of changes in extreme temperature events are generally less than that of mean temperatures, except for winter cold nights which are changing as rapidly as the winter mean minimum temperature. These results indicate that there have been seasonally and diurnally asymmetric changes in extreme temperature events relative to recent increases in temperature means in the APN region. There are no systematic, regional trends over the study period in total precipitation, or in the frequency and duration of extreme precipitation events. Statistically significant trends in extreme precipitation events are observed at fewer than 30% of all weather stations, with no spatially coherent pattern of change, whereas statistically significant changes in extreme temperature events have occurred at more than 70% of all weather stations, forming strongly coherent spatial patterns. Copyright © 2009 Royal Meteorological Society

It is shown that landscape variability decreases the temperature in the surface layer when, through mesoscale flow, cool air intrudes over warm patches, lifting warm air and weakening the static stability of the upper part of the planetary boundary layer. This mechanism generates regions of upward vertical motion and a sizable amount of available potential energy and can make the environment of the lower troposphere more favorable to cloud formation. This process is enhanced by light ambient wind through the generation of trapped propagating waves, which penetrate into the midtropospheric levels, transporting upward the thermal perturbations and weakening the static stability around the top of the boundary layer. At moderate ambient wind speeds, the presence of surface roughness changes strengthens the wave activity, further favoring the vertical transport of the thermal perturbations. When the intensity of the ambient wind is larger than 5 m s−1, the vertical velocities induced by the surface roughness changes prevail over those induced by the diabatic flux changes. The analysis is performed using a linear theory in which the mesoscale dynamics are forced by the diurnal diabatic sensible heat flux and by the surface stress. Results are shown as a function of ambient flow intensity and of the wavelength of a sinusoidal landscape variability.

TECH project (Technology for the Egyptian Cultural Heritage) aimed to document an Egyptian monument for Egyptological studies and researches but, at the same time, to check a new methodological approach for conservation, valorisation and enhancement. In particular, the CNR mission focused the attention on the tomb of Harkhuf, a high official of the VI dynasty (XXIII century BC), who led trading and military expeditions into Nubia. The hieroglyphic texts inscribed on the façade of his tomb are very important and famous documents. The team checked an innovative and integrated methodology. The methodology has been focused mainly on the use of digital photogrammetric systems in order to generate an accurate numerical model (3D) and to facilitate the epigraphic study. Different procedures have been established in the processing and representation steps in order to accomplish the final communication of the results. Moreover climatic measurements have been carried out in order to understand the role of environmental factors on the deterioration of the monument. Finally the data have been crossed in order to check the environmental impact and the decay.

We analyse the anomalously warm summer months in the Mediterranean region using the 850 hPa temperature, T850, extracted from the ERA-40 reanalysis, in order to find how these anomalies are related to the anomaly of the jet stream over the Euro-Atlantic area. In this region, the westerly jet has two main branches: the Scandinavian jet and the Mediterranean jet, which, in summer, are at a meridional minimum distance. In addition, we analyse the heat waves in the Central Mediterranean in the last half century using the temperature observations collected at fifty surface stations distributed throughout the Italian peninsula and its two major islands, and we relate these events to the position of the Mediterranean jet. We find that, when these two jets are almost aligned, there is a streak of the Mediterranean jet over the Alps and, to the south of them, an anticyclonic vorticity aloft, which forces a strong subsidence and an adiabatic warming of the troposphere over the Mediterranean. This configuration is also a characteristic of anomalously warm spells over the basin. While, when the Mediterranean jet resides further south and along the northern rim of Africa, its meridional distance from the Scandinavian jet is relatively large, the vorticity over the Mediterranean is cyclonic and this region is relatively cool. The tropospheric temperature difference between these two configurations (Mediterranean jet over the Alps and jet over North Africa) is of the order of 3 °C. Since the correlation between the observed temperatures over Italy and the ERA-40 T850 in the Central Mediterranean is more than 90%, and more than 60% in the T850 of the entire Mediterranean basin, we conclude that the heat waves over Italy are representative of exceptionally warm episodes over the Central Mediterranean, and that a warm spell over Italy is a country-scale symptom of warm spells in the Mediterranean basin. Copyright  2006 Royal Meteorological Society.

Recently, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) has been considered for several indications beyond its original purpose, not only to test embryos for genetic disease but also to select embryos for a nondisease trait, such as specific human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genotypes, related to immune compatibility with an existing affected child in need of a haematopoetic stem cell (HSC) transplant. We have optimized an indirect single-cell HLA typing protocol based on a multiplex fluorescent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of short tandem repeat (STR) markers scattered throughout the HLA complex. The assay was clinically applied in 60 cycles from 45 couples. A conclusive HLA-matching diagnosis was achieved in 483/530 (91.1%) of the embryos tested. In total, 74 (15.3%) embryos revealed an HLA match with the affected siblings, 55 (11.4%) of which resulted unaffected and 46 (9.5%) have been transferred to the patients. Nine pregnancies were achieved, five healthy HLA-matched children have already been delivered and cord blood HSCs, were transplanted to three affected siblings, resulting in a successful haematopoietic reconstruction.

China is the third largest Country (after Russia and Canada) extending from the West Pacific Ocean to the Tibet plateau, where the climate ranges from the monsoonal regime in the east to the extreme dryness in the west, and from tropical in the south to subarctic in the north. Traditionally, a large part of the population is dedicated to the agriculture, with a high percentage continuously migrating towards the industrial coastal areas. In this perspective, water represents a precious resource for living, industries and farming, and its scarcity, due to climate changes and variability, is an overwhelming problem for the entire community. Therefore it is fundamental to have a clear picture of the climate changes and trends undergoing in different regions of this vast and varied country. Moreover, understanding the climate variability in China will certainly give important hints on the trends of the vegetation, and, therefore, on the role of Chinese ecosystems in the global carbon cycle and global climate change, while the assessment of the impact of land-use changes on the local and regional climate will help in adaptation strategies. In this paper we present results on the climate analysis in selected regions, and on the climate variability affecting the water cycle and the land productivity.

A theory is presented for the evaluation of the different terms of the pressure gradient force, when mesoscale flow is driven by a sensible heat source in the planetary boundary layer (PBL), or by an elevated confined heat source, such as the release of the latent heat of condensation in a cloud. The nonlinear and linear, and the nonhydrostatic and the hydrostatic pressure gradient contributions are evaluated. The validity of the different approximations is discussed as a function of time and space scales. In addition, the validity of this approach is explored as a function of atmospheric environmental parameters, such as static stability, large-scale flow, and dissipation. By accessing the relative importance of each contribution, specific solution techniques for mesoscale atmospheric flows can be adopted. For example, when the linear contributions dominate, an exact analytic model could be used, rather than relying on numerical approximation solution techniques. When the hydrostatic contribution dominates, the spatial variation of the vertical temperature profile can be used to uniquely define the horizontal pressure gradient force.

Climatic factors and weather type frequencies affecting Tuscany are examined to discriminate between vintages ranked into the upper- and lower-quartile years as a consensus from six rating sources of Chianti wine during the period 1980 to 2011. These rankings represent a considerable improvement on any individual publisher ranking, displaying an overall good consensus for the best and worst vintage years. Climate variables are calculated and weather type frequencies are matched between the eight highest and the eight lowest ranked vintages in the main phenological phases of Sangiovese grapevine. Results show that higher heat units; mean, maximum and minimum temperature; and more days with temperature above 35 °C were the most important discriminators between good- and poor-quality vintages in the spring and summer growth phases, with heat units important during ripening. Precipitation influences on vintage quality are significant only during veraison where low precipitation amounts and precipitation days are important for better quality vintages. In agreement with these findings, weather type analysis shows good vintages are favoured by weather type 4 (more anticyclones over central Mediterranean Europe (CME)), giving warm dry growing season conditions. Poor vintages all relate to higher frequencies of either weather type 3, which, by producing perturbation crossing CME, favours cooler and wetter conditions, and/or weather type 7 which favours cold dry continental air masses from the east and north east over CME. This approach shows there are important weather type frequency differences between good- and poor-quality vintages. Trend analysis shows that changes in weather type frequencies are more important than any due to global warming.

We present an analytical evaluation and interpretation on how diabatic heating of the convective boundary layer (CBL) is transported upward into the midtroposphere by mesoscale flows, and how the air mixes with the environment and therefore weakens the atmospheric static stability. The thermodynamic imprint on the free atmosphere due to the irreversible processes such as mixing, dissipation, and diffusion, associated with the mesoscale flow, is more clearly shown when the forcing is periodic in time. Convective mixing in the CBL accounts for a thermodynamic perturbation of the order of a few degrees, while mixing associated with the mesoscale activity accounts for a perturbation of the order of half a degree. To isolate this last effect, we prescribe a periodic forcing with a 1 day period, so over 24 hours, the net diabatic input averages to zero, and the contribution due to the advection cancels out. In this formulation the perturbation is solely due to irreversible processes associated with the mesoscale. These perturbations are relevant, since they are smaller, but of the same order of magnitude as perturbations associated with mesoscale advection and the CBL mixing. A more complete evaluation of the relative contribution to the atmospheric perturbations due to the mesoscale activity was completed using an initial value problem approach. In this case, there is a net transport of the diabatic heat induced by the mesoscale flow. As a consequence, when the mesoscale flow persists for several days, the static stability of the atmosphere is eroded by the combined action of the diabatic heat, CBL mixing, and transport and mixing due to the mesoscale activity. In this paper we first evaluate the contribution of the irreversible processes using a periodic in time forcing. Then we examine the atmospheric impact due to a sequence of several sea breeze days, starting from rest at time zero and letting the flow evolve as an initial value problem. Results suggest that perturbations associated with mesoscale flows generated by landscape variability are of climatological importance and need to be introduced in a parametric form in coarser large-scale models, as presently is done with turbulent subgrid CBL processes.

A new method is presented for the extraction of mixed layer depth and entrainment zone thickness from lidar, backscatter ratio profiles. The method is based on fitting a four parameter, idealized profile to observed profiles. Optimization of the fit yields values for mixed layer depth and entrainment zone thickness. Since the fitting procedure is based on the entire measured profile, it has a robustness not found in methods based on critical backscatter or backscatter gradient. The method is tested by application to four measured profiles and three synthetic profiles. The sets of profiles include some that are very demanding because of small mixed layer to upper layer backscatter ratio contrasts, or have plumes of high backscatter imbedded in mixed and upper layers. It is shown that the method is robust and simple to implement, even for a sequence of independent profiles.

The authors Present an analytical evaluation of the vertical heat and momentum fluxes associated with mesoscale flow generated by periodic and isolated thermal inhomogeneities within the convective boundary layer (CBL). The influence of larger-scale wind flow is also included. The results show that, with little or no synoptic wind, the vertical velocity is in phase with the diabatic temperature perturbations and that the mesoscale heat flux is positive and of the same order as the diabatic heat flux within the CBL. Above the CBL, the heat flux is negative and penetrates into the free atmosphere through a depth comparable to the depth of the CBL. In the presence of synoptic flow, the mesoscale perturbation is in the form of propagating waves that penetrate deeply into the free atmosphere. As a result, there is a net downward flux of momentum, which is dissipated within the CBL by turbulence. Furthermore, mixing with the environment of the air particles displaced by the waves results in a net negat...

Mediterranean climate change during the last 60 years is based on homogenized daily temperature and quality controlled precipitation observational data and gridded products. The estimated changes indicate statistically significant Mediterranean summer temperature increase and a reduction in winter precipitation in specific areas. Reconstructions of Mediterranean sea level suggest a rise of some 150 mm since the beginning of the nineteenth century. A 20 years long reanalysis (1985–2007) was produced, showing long term temperature variability and a positive salinity trend in the ocean layers from the surface to 1,500 m depth. A prominent increase in summer temperature extremes is found in the whole Mediterranean region, while warm bias in the mid twentieth century station data is removed by homogenization. No basin-wide trends in precipitation and droughts are found for the second half of the twentieth century, while trends in extreme winds are largely negative, as are those of the related cyclones and cut-off-lows. The role of large scale pressure patterns like the NAO for variabilities and trends is discussed for the different parameters considered.

The RAINS (Regional Air Pollution INformation and Simulation) model was developed at IIASA as an integrated assessment tool to assist policy advisors in evaluating options for reducing acid rain. In recent years, the European implementation of this model has been used to support the negotiations on an updated, effect-based Sulphur Protocol under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. The development of future strategies for reducing the environmental damage caused by air pollutants requires a multi-pollutant, multi-effect approach. In this context, the RAINS model is being further developed to include ozone. This paper outlines the development of an integrated assessment model for tropospheric ozone, which combines information on the emissions of ozone precursors (NOx and VOCs), the available control technologies and abatement costs, the formation and transport of ozone and its environmental effects in Europe.

Results show that the year-to-year quality variation of wines produced in North and Central Italy depends on the large-scale climate variability, and that the wine quality improvement in the last four decades is partially due to an increase of temperature and to a decrease of precipitation in West and Central Mediterranean Europe (WME; CME). In addition, wine quality is positively correlated with air temperature throughout the entire active period of the grapevine, weakly negatively correlated with precipitation in spring, and well negatively correlated in summer and fall. The month-to-month composites of the NAO anomaly show that, in years of good quality wine, this anomaly is negative in late spring, oscillates around zero in summer, and is positive in early fall; while, in years of bad quality wine, it is positive in late spring and summer, and negative in early fall, i.e. its polarity has an opposite sign in spring and fall in good versus bad years. The composite seasonal maps show that good wines are produced when the spring jet stream over the Atlantic diverts most of the weather perturbations towards North Europe, still providing a sufficient amount of rainwater to CME; when summer warming induced by southerly winds is balanced by the cooling induced by westerly winds; and when a positive geopotential anomaly over WME shelters CME from fall Atlantic storms. Bad quality wines are produced when the jet stream favors the intrusion of the Atlantic weather perturbations into the Mediterranean. Results suggest that atmospheric pattern persistencies can be used as precursors for wine quality forecast.

To assess the feasibility of offering array-based comparative genomic hybridization testing for prenatal diagnosis as a first-line test, a prospective study was performed, comparing the results achieved from array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) with those obtained from conventional karyotype.Women undergoing amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling were offered aCGH analysis. A total of 1037 prenatal samples were processed in parallel using both aCGH and G-banding for standard karyotyping. Specimen types included amniotic fluid (89.0%), chorionic villus sampling (9.5%) and cultured amniocytes (1.5%).Chromosomal abnormalities were identified in 34 (3.3%) samples; in 9 out of 34 cases (26.5%) aCGH detected pathogenic copy number variations that would not have been found if only a standard karyotype had been performed. aCGH was also able to detect chromosomal mosaicism at as low as a 10% level. There was complete concordance between the conventional karyotyping and aCGH results, except for 2 cases that were only correctly diagnosed by aCGH.This study demonstrates that aCGH represents an improved diagnostic tool for prenatal detection of chromosomal abnormalities. Although larger studies are needed, our results provide further evidence on the feasibility of introducing aCGH as a first-line diagnostic test in routine prenatal diagnosis practice.

This is a study on the impact of the jetstream in the Euro-Atlantic region on the rainfall distribution in the Mediterranean region; the study, based on data analysis, is restricted to the Mediterranean rainy season, which lasts from September to May. During this season, most of the weather systems originate over the Atlantic, and are carried towards the Mediterranean region by the westerly flow. In the upper troposphere of the Euro-Atlantic region this flow is characterized by two jets: the Atlantic jet, which crosses the ocean with a northeasterly tilt, and the African jet, which flows above the coast of North Africa. This study shows that the cross-jet circulation of the Atlantic jet favors storm activity in its exit region, while the cross-jet circulation of the African jet suppresses this kind of activity in its entrance region, with the 1st jet-stormtrack covariance mode explaining nearly 50% of the variability. It follows that the rainfall distribution downstream to these cross-jet circulations is strongly influenced by their relative positions. Specifically, in fall, rainfall is abundant in the western Mediterranean basin (WM), when the Atlantic jet is relatively strong but its northeasterly tilt is small, and the African jet is in its easternmost position. In winter, rainfall is abundant in the eastern Mediterranean basin (EM); this is when the Atlantic jet reaches the Scandinavian peninsula and the African jet is in its westernmost position. In spring, when the two jets weaken, the Atlantic jet retreats over the ocean, but the African jet stays in its winter position, rainfall is abundant in the Alpine region and in the Balkans. In addition, the covariance between precipitation and the jetstream has been evaluated. In fall, the latitudinal displacement of the Atlantic jet and the longitudinal displacement of the African jet modulate rainfall anomalies in the WM, with 38% explained covariance. In winter, the latitudinal displacement of the Atlantic jet produces rainfall anomalies in the western and central Mediterranean, with 45% explained covariance. In spring, the latitudinal displacement of the African jet produces rainfall anomalies, with 38% explained covariance.

[1] The influence of May to September sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the Mediterranean Sea on the West African monsoon is investigated, analyzing the outputs of numerical sensitivity experiments performed using three atmospheric general circulation models (Action de Recherche Petite Echelle Grande Echelle, European/Hamburg, and University of California, Los Angeles) in the framework of the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis project. The precipitation and atmospheric dynamics response to the SST forcing is explored, in terms of intraseasonal variability, evaluating the results from the individual models and from the multimodel mean. A positive precipitation response to warmer than average conditions in the Mediterranean Sea is found in the Sudano-Sahelian belt in August-September. The proposed dynamic mechanism underlying the Mediterranean action on the West African monsoon is based on the modifications produced by the SST forcing in the moisture content in the lower troposphere. A warmer eastern Mediterranean in August-September feeds the lower troposphere with additional moisture, with a consequent reinforcement of northerly moisture transport toward the Sahel. Furthermore, warmer SST is linked to a strengthening of the Saharan heat low and to an enhancement of the moist static energy meridional gradient over West Africa, favoring the northward displacement of the monsoonal front.

We have developed a hydrological prognostic index, HOWI (hydrological onset and withdrawal index), for the onset and the withdrawal of the West African monsoon (WAM), based on the vertically integrated moisture transport (VIMT). The regions of West Africa with the same climatological onset (withdrawal) date are characterized by a large change of the VIMT around the onset (withdrawal) date. By analyzing the variability of the VIMT, we determine the extension and the geographical position of these regions, which we take sufficiently large to filter out the fast weather variability. It turns out that the regions with the same climatological onset date do not usually coincide with the regions with the same climatological withdrawal date, the areas with the maximum variability of the VIMT during the onset phase are usually a fraction of the area where the variability of the VIMT is large during the withdrawal phase. This is because the onset has active phases and pauses in time and it is fragmented in space, while the withdrawal is rather rapid and almost uniformly distributed through the entire monsoonal region. When the monsoon moves inland, the rainfall slightly trails behind the arrival of the moisture, and, when the monsoon moves back towards the gulf of Guinea, the moisture slightly precedes the retreating rainfall. In a specific region, we say that the onset (withdrawal) of the monsoon occurs when the moisture reaches (declines to) half of its climatological value. The level of the moisture relatively to its climatological value is evaluated through the HOWI, i.e., at the onset (withdrawal) the HOWI is zero with a positive (negative) tendency. We find that the dates of the onset of the monsoon determined using the HOWI, computed in the region where the VIMT has its maximum variability during the onset phase of WAM, well agree with the dates of the sudden transition of the ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) from 5 to 10A degrees N. The uncertainty on the onset date is of the order of 2 pentads, which is comparable to the uncertainty on the date of the sudden transition of the ITCZ. We, then, use the HOWI to determine the onset and the withdrawal dates of the monsoon for the period 1979-2004, finding that an early (late) onset usually preludes to a longer (shorter) monsoonal season with more (less) cumulated rain. Finally, we compare the onset dates in the Sahelian region, for the period 1979-2004, with those determined using methods based on rainfall.

Publisher Summary The Mediterranean climate is affected by several tropical and subtropical systems as illustrated by some evidence presented in this chapter. These factors range from the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and tropical hurricanes to the South Asian Monsoon and Saharan dust. This leads to complex features in the Mediterranean climate variability. It reviews some tropical and subtropical teleconnections to the Mediterranean climate. It discusses the South Asian Monsoon (SAM), which is a key factor influencing the climate of the eastern and central Mediterranean. It causes high variability in sea level pressure (SLP) over Arabia and the Middle East with high pressures in winter and low pressures in summer. The adjustment to the SAM couples the falling pressure and land temperature over the Indian subcontinent/Asia Minor with rising pressure and temperature over the Persian Gulf and Iraq. Red Sea Trough intrusions into the Eastern Mediterranean and the Saharan dust are also discussed in the chapter.

Spring dust episode (Yellow Sand or Kosa) contributes to a number of environmental effects, including visibility impairment, mineral deposition, and enhancement of the pH of precipitation. Origin of yellow sand locates at the inland desert area (such as Gobi and Takla Makan) of Asian continent. It is transported more than several thousand kilometers to Japan due the springtime strong westerly. Transboundary transport of anthropogenic air pollutants is another significant environmental problem in East Asia because of very rapid increase of pollutants emissions due to fast economic growth. Anthropogenic aerosols and natural mineral dusts have a long residence time of more than a week and have a strong radiative forcing. Intercontinental and/or TransPacific pollutant transport becomes also another important environmental issue (e.g., Uno et al, 2001b). ACE-Asia (Asian Pacific Regional Aerosol Characterization Experiment), IGAC core research project, was designed to increase our understanding of how atmospheric aerosol particles affect the Earth’s climate system. The intensive observation was carried out during March to May, 2001 participated using aircraft, a research vessel, surface stations and numerical models. Aerosol transport forecast modeling activities played an important role during the ACE-Asia intensive observation period. We developed and operated chemical transport models RIAM-CFORS (Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, Kyushu University & University of Iowa Chemical weather FORecast System) in forecast mode and participated in flight planning activities at the operations center of ACE-Asia in Iwakuni, Japan. In this paper we will present an overview of the RIAM-CFORS system and summarize the general aerosol transport pattern and averaged concentration including aerosol optical depth during the March and April, 2001.

Fast growing East Asian countries with their rapid increase in population and economy and, consequently, with their augmented energy consumption and production, show a dramatic increase of the emissions of air pollutants like sulfur and nitrogen oxides and particulates. As a consequence, acid deposition and long range transboundary air pollution are becoming one of the major concerns of Environmental Protection Agencies in each country which have recently started to expand their monitoring activities. Oceans such as the East China Sea, the Japan Sea between mainland China and Japan, as well as the Pacific Ocean cover a huge fraction of the region, and the interaction between Pacific maritime air masses and continental air masses strongly affect the meteorology and climatology of East Asia. In particular, as a result of this interaction, storm tracks and orographic precipitation during winter, synoptic scale persistent precipitation belt related to the summer monsoon, and the passage of fast moving typhoon represent some of the climate features characteristic of this region (Emori et al., 2000). Therefore knowledge of both pollutant concentration and meteorological parameters over these oceans is critically necessary to understand the long-range transport and transformation processes. However there are quite few observation point over these oceans, therefore remote sensing observation (i.e., satellite) and/or simulations with a regional meteorological model become important tools to evaluate the spatial distribution of cloud and precipitation in this area. To overcome these difficulties, an on-line regional scale chemical transport model fully coupled with CSU-RAMS (Regional Atmospheric Modeling System, Pielke et al., 1992) was developed to study regional transboundary air pollution. In particular, the coupled model can be adopted to simulate regional meteorological climate and chemical composition climate over the Asian and West Pacific region. This study shows the role of meteorological and climatological conditions in the

Hourly wind speed and direction data from 12 coastline stations on Sardinia, Italy, are analysed in order to characterize sea breezes in the region. A set of criteria based on the diurnal reversal of wind direction, and the thermal gradient necessary to drive the circulation, is used to identify sea breeze days. Statistics are presented that describe the occurrence, duration, and strength of the sea breezes. On a stationwide basis, sea breezes are most frequent in the summer months (May–August), when they appear on more than one-third of the days. Sea breeze occurrence and duration are the greatest for the stations on the east coast of the island. The all-station average sea breeze duration reaches a maximum of about 9 h in June. The strength of the sea breezes is roughly 3 m s−1 during summer months on average over all stations in the sample. An analysis of mean daily hodographs for the stations in the sample shows clearly the onshore–offshore nature of the sea breeze circulation, and the response of the sea breezes to the local coastline. Sea breezes are shown to develop simultaneously on all coasts of the island under appropriate synoptic conditions. Copyright © 2002 Royal Meteorological Society.

Although fetal cells are consistently present in maternal blood from the first trimester on, there is no simple, rapid, and reliable procedure for isolating these cells so that genetic studies can be done noninvasively. The small number of circulating fetal cells and their loss during enrichment procedures create problems in recovering them. The investigators describe a single-step method for isolating fetal cells from maternal blood, relying on nonphysiological conditions to alter cell density before separating them using density gradient centrifugation and a new cell separation device. The procedure is grounded in findings that fetal nucleated red blood cells (NRBCs) from cord blood can be isolated up to purity. Isolated fetal cells were examined by cytochemistry, Soret band absorption microscopy, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and immunostaining with monoclonal antibodies for e- and γ-chain-hemoglobin and for i-antigen. Fetal cells were identified in all 105 maternal blood samples examined. The mean number of nucleated cells isolated from maternal blood was 3.2 X 10 6 . All samples studied were positive for benzidine-stained nucleated cells, for e- and γ-stained NRBCs, and for I-antigen. Fetal gender was correctly predicted in all but 1 of 38 samples analyzed by the polymerase chain reaction technique. Trisomic cells were present in all 8 aneuploid pregnancies. They also were identified in cases in which blood was sampled before any invasive procedure. It is possible to consistently isolate fetal cells from maternal blood if sophisticated equipment or technically demanding procedures are available. The present study shows that fetal cells also can be obtained from maternal blood in numbers sufficient for noninvasive prenatal study using simple laboratory equipment and procedures.

It is long been recognized that land and sea contrasts produce sea breezes. More recently, it has become evident that landscape variations which result in spatial gradients in surface heat flux can produce mesoscale circulations as strong as sea breezes. However, it remains to determine how small a horizontal variation in surface heating can still produce a significant mesoscale circulation. It order to address this question, in this paper we present results for one Fourier component. While only the linear response can be evaluated using this tool, such models have been shown to be effective at identifying dominant physical processes associated with sea breezes (Rotunno, 1983; Dalu and Pielke, 1989, 93). This approach can also be used to assist in the development of a parameterization of mesoscale effects generated by spatial surface sensible heat variability for use in larger scale models. The primitive equations can be reduced to an equation for the streamfunction: $$\left[ {{{\left({\frac{\partial }{{\partial x}} + {k_p}} \right)}^2} + k_o^2} \right]\frac{{{\partial ^2}\varphi }}{{\partial {z^2}}} + \left[ {{{\left( {\frac{\partial }{{\partial x}} + {k_p}} \right)}^2} + {l^2}} \right]\frac{{{\partial ^2}\varphi }}{{\partial {x^2}}} = - \frac{1}{{{U^2}}}\frac{{\partial Q}}{{\partial x}}$$ (1) $$\begin{gathered}\frac{{\partial \varphi }}{{\partial z}} = u {\text{and}} \frac{{\partial \varphi }}{{\partial x}} = - w; {l^2} = \frac{{N_o^2}}{{{U^2}}} - \frac{{{U_{zz}}}}{U}; p = s + \lambda ; {k_p} = \frac{p}{U} + \frac{{K{k^2}}}{U} {\text{and}} {k_o} = \frac{f}{U} \hfill \\h = {h_o}\frac{1}{2}\left[ {1 + {a_1}\sin \left( {kx} \right) + {a_2}\cos \left( {kx} \right)} \right] = {h_o}\frac{1}{2}\left[ {1 + a\sin \left( {kx + b} \right)} \right] \hfill \\\end{gathered}$$ (2) $${a_1} = \frac{{\lambda \left( {\lambda + K{k^2}} \right)}}{{{{\left( {\lambda + K{k^2}} \right)}^2} + {k^2}{U^2}}}; {a_2} = - \frac{{\lambda kU}}{{{{\left( {\lambda + K{k^2}} \right)}^2} + {k^2}{U^2}}}; \mathop {\lim }\limits_{k,U \to \infty } {a_1},{a_2} = 0$$ (3) $${h_a} = \frac{1}{2}{h_o}\left( {1 + a} \right) Q = \frac{{{Q_o}q\left( s \right)}}{2}\left[ {1 + a\sin \left( {kx + b} \right)} \right]He\left( {{h_a} - z} \right)$$ (4)

We present an analytical evaluation of the perturbations to mesoscale atmospheric flows induced by surface thermal inhomogeneities., We apply the theory to a sea breeze case in the presence or in the absence of an inland lake. We show also some particles trajectories for these two cases. Furthermore we show that at least to the extend of the linear response of the atmosphere terrain thermal inhomogeneities which have a separation of the order of the depth of the boundary layer need not be resolved in a numerical model, because these inhomogeneities are spatially averaged by the atmospheric response.

Using Gauss's divergence theorem, we examine the role of the net radiative cooling and of the entrainment of potentially warm air from the free atmosphere into the surface layer in determining the intensity of the cold-air outflow at the rim of the Antarctic continent. The result shows that a large amount of cold air, significant at even a global climatological scale, is exported through this process from high- to low-latitude regions. The theory gives also the average intensity of the wind at the coast. In the coastal regions of Antarctica the wind exhibits a complex behavior. Observations show that katabatic winds in the near-coastal region can be periodic or continuous, or can stay a long time in a quiescent near-critical state, then burst in short and strong gusts. We examine some aspects of these katabatic winds in terms of the mesoscale energy theory developed by Dalu and Green (1983). This complex behavior is described by a nonlinear system, where the relevant parameter is the Froude number of the inflow at a Rossby radius distance from the coast. The analytical theory developed agrees well with qualitative features observed.