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BackgroundParent–child interaction is essential in the development of attentional control (AC) and executive functioning (EF). Educating parents in AC and EF development may help them to respond more adaptively to their child's developmental needs.AimThis study aimed to investigate whether parents can be educated to improve interactions with their child through a compact psycho‐educational programme that focuses on fostering the development of AC and EF.SampleParents and their children in a low‐risk sample of four‐ to eight‐year‐olds were randomly assigned to either the educational programme condition (N = 34) or the control condition (N = 36).MethodsParental supportive presence and intrusiveness were observed during home visits, and children's performance‐based AC and EF were assessed before and after the four‐session programme.ResultParents in the educational programme improved significantly in support ( = .19) and intrusiveness ( = .09) compared to controls. There was no short‐term programme mediation effect on child AC and EF through parental support and intrusiveness. This study showed, however, that parents who improved after the educational programme had children who improved on AC and EF.ConclusionParent–child interaction can be enhanced in a low‐risk sample of four‐ to eight‐year‐olds using a compact educational group programme within the school community. Future studies should aim at examining variations in programme responsiveness and assessing associations between parent–child interaction and AC and EF over time.

Good parenting strategies can shape children’s neurocognitive development, yet little is known about the nature of this relation in school-aged children and whether this association shifts with age. We aimed to investigate the relation between parenting strategies observed during a home visit and children’s performance-based attentional control and executive functioning (N = 98, aged 4–8 years). Linear and curvilinear regression analyses showed that children of parents who were more supportive, were less intrusive, and asked more open-ended questions displayed better inhibitory control. In addition, children of parents who asked relatively more open-ended than closed-ended questions showed better performance on inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility tasks. Curvilinear relations indicated the presence of an optimal amount of closed-ended and elaborative questions by parents—that is, not too few and not too many—which is linked to increased performance on attentional and inhibitory control in children. Higher parental intrusiveness and more frequent elaborative questioning were associated with decreased inhibitory control in younger children, whereas no such negative associations were present in older children. These results suggest that susceptibility to certain parenting strategies may shift with age. Our findings underscore the importance of adaptive parenting strategies to both the age and needs of school-aged children, which may positively affect their self-regulation skills.

This study investigated whether parents can be educated to alter parent-child interactions and whether this can improve children's reasoning abilities. Parents of four- to eight-year-olds were randomly assigned to a compact psycho-educational program (N = 34) or control condition (N = 36). Parental questioning style was observed during problem-solving interactions at home and children's scientific and social reasoning were assessed using performance-based tasks. Parents in the educational condition asked significantly more open-ended, observational and explanatory questions at post-test than controls did. Asking relatively more open-ended questions at post-test was associated with improved aspects of scientific reasoning in their children. Asking more observational or explanatory questions was not associated with improved reasoning abilities. Educating parents to adaptively modify their parent-child interactions can positively influence their questioning style, which in turn may benefit their child's reasoning abilities.

Background Little is known about the role of behavioural executive functioning (EF) skills and level of intelligence (IQ) on math abilities in children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities. Method Teachers of 63 children attending a school for special education (age: 10 to 13 years; IQ: 50 to 85) filled out a Behaviour Rating Inventory for Executive Function for each student. Furthermore, students took a standardised national composite math test and a specific math test on measurement and time problems. Information on level of intelligence was gathered through school records. Multiple regression analyses were performed to test direct, moderating and mediating effects of EF and IQ on math performance. Results Behavioural problems with working memory and flexibility had a direct negative effect on math outcome, while concurrently, level of intelligence had a positive effect. The effect of IQ on math skills was moderated by problems with inhibition: in children with a clinical level of inhibition problems, there was no effect of level of intelligence on math performance. Conclusions Findings suggest that in students with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities and math difficulties, it is important to address their strengths and weaknesses with respect to EF and adjust instruction and remedial intervention accordingly.

Very little is known about the relative influence of cognitive performance-based executive functioning (EF) measures and behavioral EF ratings in explaining differences in children's school achievement. This study examined the shared and unique influence of these different EF measures on math and spelling outcome for a sample of 84 first and second graders. Parents and teachers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), and children were tested with computer-based performance tests from the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks (ANT). Mixed-model hierarchical regression analyses, including intelligence level and age, showed that cognitive performance and teacher's ratings of working memory and shifting concurrently explained differences in spelling. However, teacher's behavioral EF ratings did not explain any additional variance in math outcome above cognitive EF performance. Parent's behavioral EF ratings did not add any unique information for either outcome measure. This study provides support for the ecological validity of performance- and teacher rating-based EF measures, and shows that both measures could have a complementary role in identifying EF processes underlying spelling achievement problems. The early identification of strengths and weaknesses of a child's working memory and shifting capabilities, might help teachers to broaden their range of remedial intervention options to optimize school achievement.

We examined the mental health problems of Dutch young adult domestic adoptees ( N = 75) relative to Dutch non-adopted peers and Dutch international adoptees. We found small differences in favor of the non-adopted peers ( N = 2021), while a minority of male domestic adoptees were at risk of anxiety/depression problems. Domestic adoptees showed somewhat less problems behavior than international adoptees ( N = 1331). Domestic and international adoptees differed in search status (non-searcher, searcher, reunited), although this could not explain any differences in mental health problems. Social workers and clinicians should support (male) adult adoptees in coping with possible feelings of anxiety and depression. Future studies should pay attention to gender differences in adoptees.

Douma, J. C. H., & Dekker, M. C. (2007). Antisocial behaviours in youths with mild intellectual disabilities, Kind en Adolescent, 28 (3), 182-196. In a sample of 526 11 to 24-year-olds with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities (id), we studied the prevalence, persistence and five-year predictors of five types of antisocial and delinquent behaviours (adbs, such as ‘mean to others’ ‘property destruction’, and ‘arson/theft’). Most adbs were exhibited by 10%-20% of the youths with id. These behaviours were fairly persistent over a five-year period. Boys with id engaged more often in adbs than boys without id. This was not true for girls with id (compared without id). adbs in youths with id were predominantly predicted by age (younger), sex (boy) and behavioural problems. Interventions particularly need to focus on this risk group. Keywords: antisocial and delinquent behaviour, youths, intellectual disability. Bij 526 jongeren met lichte verstandelijke beperkingen (11-24 jaar) zijn de prevalentie, persistentie en voorspellers van vijf typen antisociale en delinquente gedragingen (adg’s) onderzocht. De meeste adg’s werden door 10-20% van de jongeren met verstandelijke beperkingen (vb) vertoond. Deze gedragingen bleken redelijk persistent gedurende een periode van vijf jaar. Vergeleken met leeftijdgenoten zonder vb vertoonden jongens, maar niet meisjes, met vb vaker adg’s. adg’s bij jongeren met een vb werden gedurende een periode van vijf jaar vooral voorspeld door leeftij d (jonger), geslacht (jongen) en het reeds eerder hebben van gedragsproblemen. Interventies zouden vooral gericht moeten zijn op deze risicogroep.

Background: Limited information is available on gender differences and young-adult poor outcome in children and adolescents following distinct developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms. Methods: Parent information on depressive symptoms of 4- to 18-year-olds from an ongoing Dutch community-based longitudinal multiple-cohort study (N ¼ 2,076) was used to estimate trajectories from semi-parametric mixture models. The identified trajectories were used to predict depressive problems, general mental health problems, referral to mental health care, and educational attainment in young adulthood. Results: In both genders six distinct developmental trajectories were identified. Gender differencesexistednotonlyinlevel,butalsoinshapeandtimingofonsetofdepressiveproblems.Onlyingirls wasachronictrajectoryofearlychildhood-onsetdepressionidentified.Inbothboysandgirlsagroupwith increasing levels of depressive symptoms was identified that reached a high level around adolescence, although boys showed an earlier onset. Two decreasing trajectories were found in boys, one reaching normative levels of depressive symptoms around late childhood and one around mid-adolescence, while none was found for girls. Individuals who followed elevated trajectories during their whole childhood or starting at adolescence had significantly more depressive and other mental health problems in young adulthood compared to those who followed normative trajectories. Boys in these elevated trajectories showed lower educational attainment, while girls were more likely to have been referred to mental health care. Conclusions: This study shows the value of estimating growth-mixture models separately for boys and girls. Girls with early childhood or adolescence-onset depressive problems and boys with depressive problems during childhood or starting in adolescence are especially at risk for poor outcome as young adults and should be considered candidates for intervention. Keywords: Depressive symptoms, growth mixture model, developmental trajectories, depression, child development, sex differences, longitudinal studies, Child Behavioral Checklist (CBCL), adolescence, adult outcome. Abbreviation: BIC: Baysian Information Criterion. Many studies on depression in childhood and adolescence use a static approach to identify a priori defined distinctive subtypes. Groups are, for example, based on DSM-IV diagnostic criteria (APA, 1994). General conclusions based on such studies are that about one-third of the children and adolescents with elevated levels of depressive symptoms continue to show similar levels of problems later in life. These studies also showed that during adolescence, girls start having more depressive problems than boys (Angold, Erkanli, Silberg, Eaves, & Costello, 2002; Fleming & Offord, 1990; Hankin et al., 1998; Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002; Wade, Cairney, & Pevalin, 2002). Other studies use dimensional depressive symptom scores. A metaanalysis of 310 samples of 8- to 16-year-olds revealed that females’ depression scores start to increase from age 12 on, while males’ scores remain stable after age 13 (Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema

Six types of antisocial and delinquent behaviors (e.g., property destruction and authority avoidance) were assessed in 526 youths (11 to 24 years of age) with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities and 1,030 11- to 18-year-olds without intellectual disabilities. Overall, 10% to 20% of youths with intellectual disabilities exhibited some type of antisocial and delinquent behavior, which were quite persistent over a 5-year period. Youths who exhibited one type of antisocial and delinquent behavior were likely to also exhibit other types of such behaviors. Being male, younger, and having behavioral problems particularly predicted these behaviors across a 5-year period. Overall, boys but not girls with intellectual disabilities exhibited antisocial and delinquent behaviors more often than peers without intellectual disabilities. Clinical implications and implications for future research are discussed. © American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

Background: We aimed to describe similarities and differences in the developmental course of psychopathology between children with and without intellectual disabilities (ID). Methods: Multilevel growth curve analysis was used to analyse the developmental course of psychopathology, using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), in two longitudinal multiple-birth-cohort samples of 6- to 18-year-old children with ID (N ¼ 978) and without ID (N ¼ 2,047) using three repeated measurements across a 6year period. Results: Children with ID showed a higher level of problem behaviours across all ages compared to children without ID. A significant difference between the samples in the developmental courses was found for Aggressive Behaviour and Attention Problems, where children with ID showed a significantly larger decrease. Gender differences in the development of psychopathology were similar in both samples, except for Social Problems where males with ID showed a larger decrease in problem behaviour across time than females with ID and males and females without ID. Conclusions: Results indicate that children with ID continue to show a greater risk for psychopathology compared to typically developing children, although this higher risk is less pronounced at age 18 than it is at age 6 for Aggressive Behaviour. Contrary to our expectations, the developmental course of psychopathology in children with ID was quite similar from age 6 to 18 compared to children without ID. The normative developmental trajectories of psychopathology in children with ID, presented here, can serve as a yardstick against which development of childhood psychopathology can be detected as deviant. Keywords: Intellectual disability, behaviour problems, development, longitudinal studies. Abbreviations: CBCL: Child Behavior Checklist; GP: general population; ID: intellectual disabilities; SES: socioeconomic status.

Background: This study examined risk factors for the development of psychopathology in children with intellectual disability (ID) in the developmental, biological, family and social-ecological domains. Methods: A population sample of 968 children, aged 6-18, enrolled in special schools in the Netherlands for educable and trainable ID were assessed at Time 1. A random 58% were re-contacted about 1 year later, resulting in a sample of 474 at Time 2. Results: Psychopathology was highly consistent over 1 year. Risk factors jointly accounted for significant, but small, portions of the variance in development of psychopathology. Child physical symptoms, family dysfunction and previous parental mental health treatment reported at Time 1 were uniquely associated with new psychopathology at Time 2. Conclusions: Prevention and early intervention research to find ways to reduce the incidence of psychopathology, possibly targeting family functioning, appear important. © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Objective: To assess the prevalence, comorbidity, and impact of DSM-IV disorders in 7- to 20-year-olds with intellectual disability. Method: A total of 474 children (response 86.8%) were randomly selected from a sample of students from Dutch schools for the intellectually disabled. Parents completed the anxiety, mood, and disruptive disorder modules of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children. Results: A total of 21.9% of the children met the DSM-IV symptom criteria for anxiety disorder, 4.4% for mood disorder, and 25.1% for disruptive disorder. Similar prevalence rates were found for children who screened positive or negative for pervasive developmental disorder. More than half of the children meeting the criteria for a DSM-IV disorder were severely impaired in everyday functioning, and about 37% had a comorbid disorder. Children with multiple disorders were more likely to be impaired across various areas of everyday functioning. Almost 27% of the diagnosed children received mental health care in the last year. Comorbidity and impairment in everyday functioning increased the likelihood of referral. Conclusions: Most disorders can be observed in intellectually disabled children. Impairment and comorbidity are high. The finding that less than one third of the children with a psychiatric disorder receive mental health care deserves attention.

Background: The main objective of this study was to assess and compare the prevalence of a wide range of emotional and behavioral problems in children with and without intellectual disability (ID). Methods: We studied 1,041 non-residential children randomly selected from special schools for educable (IQ 60 to 80) and trainable (IQ 30 to 60) children without severe additional physical or sensory impairments, and compared them to 1,855 children randomly selected from the general population (both ages 6 to 18). Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and teachers the Teacher's Report Form (TRF). Results: Controlling for sex, age, and socioeconomic status, we found that both educable and trainable children had significantly higher mean scores on all CBCL and TRF scales than children without ID, except for trainable children on the scales Anxious/Depressed and Somatic Complaints. Almost 50% of children with ID had a Total Problem score in the deviant range compared to about 18% in children without ID. Compared to children without ID, the most prominent problem behaviors of educable children were Social Problems, Attention Problems, and Aggressive Behavior, and trainable children had an increased risk for Social Problems, Attention Problems, Withdrawn and Thought Problems. Conclusions: Elevated scale scores reflected differences between children with and without ID over a broad range of items, and not solely on items more likely to be related to developmental delay. Therefore, problem areas covered by the items in these scales deserve special attention in the mental health care of children with ID.

The objective of the reported study was to reassess the factor structure of the Developmental Behaviour Checklist (DBC) in a large cross-cultural sample representing all levels of intellectual disability. Parent and teacher DBC ratings on a combined sample of 1536 Dutch and Australian children and adolescents (ages 3–22) with mild to profound intellectual disability were used. Principal components analyses produced five subscales: Disruptive/Antisocial, Self-Absorbed, Communication Disturbance, Anxiety, and Social Relating, explaining 43.7% of the total variance. Internal consistencies of these subscales ranged from .66 to .91. The revised factor structure of the DBC appears to be an improved and useful tool for assessing emotional and behavioral problems in children with intellectual disabilities.

The present study assessed the reliability and validity of the revised scales of the Developmental Behaviour Checklist (DBC) in a Dutch sample of children with intellectual disability (ID). The psychometric properties of the parent and teacher versions of the DBC were assessed in various subsamples derived from a sample of 1057 Dutch children (age range = 6-18 years) with ID or borderline intellectual functioning. Good test-retest reliability was shown both for the parent and teacher versions. Moderate inter-parent agreement and high one-year stability was found for the scale scores. Construct validity was satisfactory, although limited by high informant variance. The DBC scales showed good criterion-related validity, as indicated by significant mean differences between referred and non-referred children, and between children with and without a corresponding DSM-IV diagnosis. The reliability and validity of the revised DBC scales are satisfactory, and the checklist is recommended for clinical and research purposes.

A 24-item short form of the 96-item Developmental Behaviour Checklist was developed to provide a brief measure of Total Behaviour Problem Score for research purposes. The short form Developmental Behaviour Checklist (DBC-P24) was chosen for low bias and high precision from among 100 randomly selected item sets. The DBC-P24 was developed from epidemiological data in the first three waves of the Australian Child to Adult Development study, and cross validated for groups with autism, fragile X, Prader-Willi, and Williams in this longitudinal study and in cross sectional Dutch, English, and Finnish samples of young people with intellectual disability. The DBC-P24 has low bias and high precision in cross-validation samples and achieves high sensitivity and specificity to full DBC-P based caseness decisions. © American Association on Mental Retardation.

OBJECTIVE: To study the help-seeking process of parents for emotional or behavioral problems in their child with borderline to moderate intellectual disabilities. METHOD: In 2003, in a special education-based sample of 522 youths (ages 10-18years, response = 77.9%), we studied the parents' perception of their child's problems, their subsequent felt need for professional help, actual help-seeking, and the factors possibly related to taking these steps. RESULTS: Even when parents indicated their child's emotional or behavioral functioning as "neither good nor bad," in about 70%, these problems were present according to standardized measures. Of the 213 parents (40.8%) who perceived problems, 70.6% felt a need, and 55.2% of these parents subsequently sought professional help. Parents more often sought help when their child had problems of anxiety and depression, experienced negative life events, and when parents perceived child psychopathology before the past year. Reported barriers to seeking help predominantly related to parents' evaluation of the severity of these problems and wanting to solve the problems themselves. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians and other service providers should address parents' concerns regarding their child's emotional/behavioral functioning and treatment seeking. Also, they should provide information on treatment options and on signs and potential negative prospects of their child's problems. ©2006 by the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

Background: Parents of children and adolescents with both intellectual disabilities (ID) and psychopathology often experience high levels of parenting stress. To support these parents, information is required regarding the types of support they need and whether their needs are met. Method: In a sample of 745 youths (aged 10-24 years) with moderate to borderline ID, 289 parents perceived emotional and/or behavioural problems in their child. They were asked about their needs for support and whether these needs were met. Logistic regression analysis revealed the variables associated with both needing and receiving specific types of support. In addition, we asked those parents who had refrained from seeking support about their reasons. Results: Most parents (88.2%) needed some supports, especially a friendly ear, respite care, child mental health care and information. Parents who perceived both emotional and behavioural problems in their child needed support the most. In addition, parents whose child had any of these problems before the past year, who worried most about their child and suffered from psychopathology themselves, more often needed support. Parents of children with moderate ID or physical problems especially needed 'relief care', that is, respite care, activities for the child and practical/material help. The need for a friendly ear was met most often (75.3%), whereas the need for parental counselling was met least often (35.5%). Not receiving support despite having a need for it was primarily related to the level of need. Parents who indicated to have a stronger need for support received support more often than parents who had a relatively low need for support. The parents' main reasons for not seeking support concerned their evaluation of their child's problems (not so serious or temporary), not knowing where to find support or wanting to solve the problems themselves first. Conclusions: Most parents had various support needs that were frequently unmet. Service providers should especially aim at providing information, activities, child mental health care and parental counselling. Furthermore, parents need to be informed about where and how they can obtain what kind of support. A case manager can be of help in this.

Kinderen en jeugdigen (vanaf hier kinderen te noemen) met verstandelijke beperkingen (VB) hebben in vergelijking met hun leeftijdgenoten uit de algemene bevolking een verhoogd risico op het ontwikkelen van psychopathologie (zie voor een overzicht, Matson & Sevin, 1994). Ten eerste benadrukken organische modellen van psychopathologie fysiologische, biochemische en genetische factoren als mogelijke oorzaken van of risicofactoren voor psychopathologie. Men is het er wel over eens dat ernstige en diepe VB gepaard gaan met structurele hersenafwijkingen. Ook is aangetoond dat chromosomale afwijkingen, voedingstekorten, zeldzame genetische stoornissen en andere biologische afwijkingen algemeen voorkomen, zelfs bij mensen met slechts een lichte VB (Curfs e.a. en Otter & Buitelaar, dit boek). Ten tweede is het duidelijk dat mensen met VB zeer gevoelig zijn voor effecten van leerprocessen tijdens hun interactie met hun omgeving. Het verhoogde niveau van psychopathologie bij deze groep wordt dan verklaard door inadequate bekrachtiging, onjuiste bestraffing, bekrachtiging van afwijkende reacties enzovoort.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the extent to which the Youth Self-Report (YSR) can be used to assess emotional and behavioral problems in adolescents with intellectual disabilities (IDs). METHOD: In 2003, 281 11- to 18-year-olds with IDs (IQ ≥48) completed the YSR in an interview, and in 1993, 1,047 non-ID adolescents completed the YSR themselves. Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). The ID sample was split into lower (IQ 48-69) and higher (IQ ≥70) IQ groups. Cronbach's α values of the YSR scales and (intraclass) correlation coefficients between and within YSR and CBCL scale scores were calculated to determine parent-adolescent agreement and YSR construct validity, which were compared between samples. Mean YSR scale scores were compared between adolescents with ID with and without psychiatric symptoms. RESULTS: Cronbach's α, parent-adolescent agreement, and indications of construct validity were about similar in all samples, although discriminant validity was somewhat weaker in the lower IQ group. Mean scale scores were 1.5 to 2.0 times higher for ID adolescents with psychiatric symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The YSR seems applicable in youth with an IQ ≥48. Further research is needed to refine and confirm these findings and the factor structure of the YSR in adolescents with ID and to differentiate between adolescents with moderate and mild IDs. ©2006 by the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

Uit representatief onderzoek bij ruim 1000 jeugdigen met verstandelijke beperkingen blijkt dat de Vragenlijst over Ontwikkeling en Gedrag (vog) een betrouwbaar en valide instrument is voor de vaststelling van gedragsproblemen bij deze groep. Bijna de helft van de jeugdigen met verstandelijke beperkingen blijkt ernstige gedragsproblemen te hebben, hetgeen drie tot vier keer vaker is dan bij jeugdigen zonder verstandelijke beperkingen het geval is. Vooral sociale problemen, aandachtsproblemen en agressief gedrag komen vaker voor en bij een aantal gedragsproblemen is er een relatie met het schoolniveau van het kind. Deze resultaten benadrukken het belang van het op gestandaardiseerde wijze vaststellen van deze problematiek binnen de jeugdzorg.

Objective To identify child and family factors that predict DSM-IV disorders in children with intellectual disability. Method In 1997, a total of 968 6- to 18-year-olds were randomly selected from Dutch schools for intellectual disability (response 69.3%). Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist, Developmental Behavior Checklist, Vineland Screener, and instruments addressing their child's physical health, family functioning, and parental mental health. One year later, parents of 474 children, randomly selected from the 1997 participants (response 86.8%), completed the anxiety, mood, and disruptive disorder modules of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-IV. Results Both child and family factors were significantly related to DSM-IV outcome 1 year later. Social incompetence, inadequate daily living skills, child health problems, negative life events, emotional and behavioral problems, and parental mental health problems were the strongest predictors of DSM-IV disorders 1 year later. After correcting for the level of behavioral problems in the previous year, the first four factors proved to be significant risk factors for DSM-IV outcome. Conclusions These factors can improve the identification of children at risk and point to topics that need attention in diagnostic and intervention procedures.

The objective of the reported study was to reassess the factor structure of the Developmental Behaviour Checklist (DBC) in a large cross-cultural sample representing all levels of intellectual disability. Parent and teacher DBC ratings on a combined sample of 1536 Dutch and Australian children and adolescents (ages 3-22) with mild to profound intellectual disability were used. Principal components analyses produced five subscales: Disruptive/Antisocial, Self-Absorbed. Communication Disturbance, Anxiety, and Social Relating, explaining 43.7% of the total variance. Internal consistencies of these subscales ranged from .66 to .91. The revised factor structure of the DBC appears to be an improved and useful tool for assessing emotional and behavioral problems in children with intellectual disabilities.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes the measurement, prevalence, course, and risk of psychopathology in children and adolescents with intellectual disability (ID). Children, including adolescents, with intellectual disability, are at higher risk than children without ID for developing psychopathology, a term used to subsume similar terms, such as mental illness or health problems, psychiatric or behavior disorders, and behavior and emotional problems. Psychopathology in children with ID is also more likely to go unrecognized and untreated. The clinical–medical assessment tradition seeks syndromes of signs and symptoms to distinguish between and among disorders expected to have distinctive organic etiologies and course. Situation specificity of problem behaviors likely contributes to the moderate cross-informant correlation coefficients. The study of the development of psychopathology requires a longitudinal design to enable the explanation of the variance in change of psychopathology from one time point to another, based on the factors measured at the first time point.

We evaluated the ability of parents, teachers and self-reports to predict signs of maladjustment in 353 11- to 14-year-olds from the general population, over a 4-year time interval. Odds ratios were computed in order to test the ability of problem scales to predict later mental health referral and measures of parents' and children's own perceptions of the existence of major problems. Each informant made its own unique and indispensable contribution to the prediction of signs of maladjustment. Although teachers are often perceived as less able to assess internalizing problems than mothers and the children themselves, the present study showed that teachers' evaluations of internalizing problems are highly relevant if we take their ability to predict the subject's own perceptions of having problems as the criterion.

Background This study described similarities and differences in the 5-year stability and change of problem behaviour between youths attending schools for children with mild to borderline (MiID) versus moderate intellectual disabilities (MoID). Methods A two-wave multiple-birth-cohort sample of 6 to 18-year-old was assessed twice across a 5-year interval using the Developmental Behaviour Checklist Primary Carer version (n ¼ 718) and Teacher version (n ¼ 313). Results For most types of problem behaviour youths with MiID and MoID showed similar levels of stability of individual differences, persistence and onset of psychopathology. Whenever differences were found, youths with MoID showed the highest level of stability, persistence and onset across informants. Mean levels of parent-reported, but not teacher-reported, problem behaviour, regardless of level of intellectual disability, decreased during the 5-year follow-up period. Conclusions Youths with MoID and MiID are at risk for persistent psychopathology to a similar degree. Different informants showed to have a different evaluation of the level and the amount of change of problem behaviour, and should be considered complementary in the diagnostic process.