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The Troll oil field has been one of the largest oil producers on the Norwegian continental shelf for the last 25 years and is now moving into late life. The remaining oil column is thin, and the fluid contacts vary due to production effects. To extend field lifetime and secure the last reserves, enhanced well placement and increased drilling efficiency is needed to reduce cost and increase recovery in the long multilateral horizontal wells. Due to thin oil column and low reserves number, every meter correctly placed in the reservoir counts. To investigate these challenges a technology development project was initiated between Equinor and Baker Hughes to develop automatic interpretation of the oil-water contact (OWC) based on inversions, and automatic steering advice for taking faster geosteering (RNS) and downlink decisions placing the wellbores at the optimal distance to the OWC. Automating log interpretation is a complex task, but solvable given a known environment. As an engineering problem it must be split up into multiple smaller tasks that can be independently solved and when combined, solve the greater task. Logging while drilling (LWD) deep azimuthal resistivity data is run through inversion processing which provides a resistivity profile from which the OWC position is identified. The inversion input model constraints are set based on field/area specific data and is run automatically as drilling progresses. To assess the quality and validity of these results, several flag curves are computed and used. This automatic quality control of the OWC points enables the creation of a forward projection of this boundary. A steering advice is calculated, giving a recommendation on how to achieve the desired stand-off and inclination above the OWC as efficiently as possible. All the output from the automatic interpretation is published to a central datastore and is immediately available for the geoscientists to optimize operational decisions. Close co-operation between the operator and the vendor during the development and testing of the service has proven beneficial for identifying areas for further improvements. The service has been tested for well placement in actual producers. Several loops have been made in the development between the different tests and the learning curve has been steep in both companies. Based on the experiences and results from the actual wells, the project has moved into a new phase for further optimization of the steering advice and linking the automated steering advice to an Automatic Drilling Control (ADC) system to deliver a more automated closed loop service.

This paper provides insights for attracting short-haul visitors to cultural heritage festivals. We show how a set of experience dimensions work as value drivers to enhance a cultural heritage experience. Drawing on the experience literature we use structural equation modelling to test the relationships between attitude, memory and revisit intentions. Empirical data was collected from short-haul visitors (from Scandinavia, Europe and UK) at five Norwegian Viking festivals. Through an integrative framework we examine how appraisals of the experience are impacted by (1) identification with a festival theme, (2) entertainment value, (3) storytelling, and (4) personal interest. Key findings: attendee perceptions of experience dimensions have a positive influence upon their attitudes, memories and revisit intentions; the formation of good and abundant memories strengthens the attitude-loyalty relationship; self-identification with heritage theme strengthens revisit intentions. The findings are timely as global emergencies increase the appeal of short-haul tourism.

Anadromous salmonids begin life adapted to the freshwater environments of their natal streams before a developmental transition, known as smoltification, transforms them into marine-adapted fish. In the wild, smoltification is a photoperiod-regulated process, involving radical remodeling of gill function to cope with the profound osmotic and immunological challenges of seawater (SW) migration. While prior work has highlighted the role of specialized “mitochondrion-rich” cells (MRCs) and accessory cells (ACs) in delivering this phenotype, recent RNA profiling experiments suggest that remodeling is far more extensive than previously appreciated. Here, we use single-nuclei RNAseq to characterize the extent of cytological changes in the gill of Atlantic salmon during smoltification and SW transfer. We identify 20 distinct cell clusters, including known, but also novel gill cell types. These data allow us to isolate cluster-specific, smoltification-associated changes in gene expression and to describe how the cellular make-up of the gill changes through smoltification. As expected, we noted an increase in the proportion of seawater mitochondrion-rich cells, however, we also identify previously unknown reduction of several immune-related cell types. Overall, our results provide fresh detail of the cellular complexity in the gill and suggest that smoltification triggers unexpected immune reprogramming.

Anadromous salmonids begin life adapted to the freshwater environments of their natal streams before a developmental transition, known as smoltification, transforms them into marine-adapted fish. In the wild, the extending photoperiods of spring stimulates smoltification, typified by radical reprogramming of the gill from an ion-absorbing organ to ion-excreting organ. Prior work has highlighted the role of specialized “mitochondrion-rich” cells in delivering this phenotype. However, transcriptomic studies identify thousands of smoltification-driven differentially regulated genes, indicating that smoltification causes a multifaceted, multicellular change; but direct evidence of this is lacking.Here, we use single-nuclei RNAseq to characterize the Atlantic salmon gill during smoltification and seawater transfer. We identify 20 distinct clusters of nuclei, including known, but also novel gill cell types. These data allow us to isolate cluster-specific, smoltification-induced changes in gene expression. We also show how cellular make-up of the gill changes through smoltification. As expected, we noted an increase in the proportion of seawater mitochondrion-rich cells, however, we also identify a reduction of several immune-related cells. Overall, our results provide unrivaled detail of the cellular complexity in the gill and suggest that smoltification triggers unexpected immune reprogramming directly preceding seawater entry.

Atlantic salmon migrate to sea following completion of a developmental process known as smolting, which establishes a seawater (SW) tolerant phenotype. Smolting is stimulated by exposure to long photoperiod or continuous light (LL) following a period of exposure to short photoperiod (SP), and this leads to major changes in gill ion exchange and osmoregulatory function. Here, we performed an RNAseq experiment to discover novel genes involved in photoperiod-dependent remodeling of the gill. This revealed a novel cohort of genes whose expression rises dramatically in fish transferred to LL following SP exposure, but not in control fish maintained continuously on LL or on SP. A follow-up experiment revealed that the SP-history dependence of LL induction of gene expression varies considerably between genes. Some genes were inducible by LL exposure after only 2 weeks exposure to SP, while others required 8 weeks prior SP exposure for maximum responsiveness to LL. Since subsequent SW growth performance is also markedly improved following 8 weeks SP exposure, these photoperiodic history-dependent genes may be useful predictive markers for full smolt development.

Summary The relatively recent development of azimuthal-resistivity measurements enables proactive geosteering within complex reservoirs. The tools enable determining the distance (up to 5 m in ideal conditions) and the azimuthal direction to a resistivity boundary. In ideal conditions, the well is inside a high-resistivity layer and the shoulder bed is low resistivity, giving geologists warning of approaching adjacent conductive beds. When the tool is in a low-resistivity layer, the depth of detection of an adjacent high-resistivity layer is much smaller. In these situations, it is often not possible to use the tool for effective geosteering. An extradeep-resistivity tool has been used for several years in Norway and has been introduced in the Peregrino Field in Brazil. It operates at lower frequencies than the shallower reading tools, has large transmitter/receiver spacings, and a depth of detection up to 25 m. This tool was deployed in addition to the conventional directional-resistivity instrument. The new application in Brazil was supported by inversion software (still in development) to enable possible interpretation of the geology within the tool range. The inversion results provide information that can help identify adjacent reservoir layers while in the target zone and measure the thickness of the reservoir layer being drilled. Examples are presented from one well where the extradeep resistivity provided early warnings and additional information that helped to steer the well successfully and maximize reservoir coverage. The extradeep measurements from the tool also provide valuable reservoir understanding and knowledge for future well-planning purposes.

Across taxa, circadian control of physiology and behavior arises from cell-autonomous oscillations in gene expression, governed by a networks of so-called ‘clock genes’, collectively forming transcription-translation feedback loops. In modern vertebrates, these networks contain multiple copies of clock gene family members, which arose through whole genome duplication (WGD) events during evolutionary history. It remains unclear to what extent multiple copies of clock gene family members are functionally redundant or have allowed for functional diversification. We addressed this problem through an analysis of clock gene expression in the Atlantic salmon, a representative of the salmonids, a group which has undergone at least 4 rounds of WGD since the base of the vertebrate lineage, giving an unusually large complement of clock genes. By comparing expression patterns across multiple tissues, and during development, we present evidence for gene- and tissue-specific divergence in expression patterns, consistent with functional diversification of clock gene duplicates. In contrast to mammals, we found no evidence for coupling between cortisol and circadian gene expression, but cortisol mediated non-circadian regulated expression of a subset of clock genes in the salmon gill was evident. This regulation is linked to changes in gill function necessary for the transition from fresh- to sea-water in anadromous fish. Overall, this analysis emphasises the potential for a richly diversified clock gene network to serve a mixture of circadian and non-circadian functions in vertebrate groups with complex genomes., Author summary The generation of daily (circadian) rhythms in behaviour and physiology depends on the activities of networks of so-called clock genes. In vertebrates, these have become highly complex due to a process known as whole genome duplication, which has occurred repeatedly during evolutionary history, giving rise to additional copies of key elements of the clock gene network. It remains unclear whether this results in functional redundancy, or whether it has permitted new roles for clock genes to emerge. Here, based on studies in the Atlantic salmon, a species with an unusually large complement of clock genes, we present evidence in favour of the latter scenario. We observe marked tissue-specific, and developmentally-dependent differences in the expression patterns of duplicated copies of key clock genes, and we identify a subset of clock genes whose expression is associated with the physiological preparation to migrate to sea, but is independent of circadian regulation. Associated with this, cortisol secretion is uncoupled from circadian organisation, contrasting with the situation in mammals. Our results indicate that whole genome duplication has permitted clock genes to diversify into non-circadian functions, and raise interesting questions about the ubiquity of mammal-like coupling between circadian and endocrine function.

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are heavily dependent on marine prey, in particular ice-associated seals, which they hunt on landfast sea ice or free-floating pack ice. Dramatic current (and predicted) losses of sea ice habitat make it increasingly important to gain more knowledge of the relative use by bears of all types of prey from the marine food web as well as from terrestrial sources. This study uses frequency of occurrence of food items in 119 polar bear scats sampled on the sea ice as well as on shore in coastal areas in the Svalbard Archipelago, mainly in spring, between 2003 and 2010 to explore the diet of bears in the region. Ringed seals (Pusa hispida) occurred in 62.2 % (CI 52.8–70.9 %) of the scat samples examined. Various terrestrial plants (32.8 %, CI 24.4–42.0 %) and marine algae (21.8 %, CI 14.8–30.4 %) also occurred frequently in the scats; the significance of this high occurrence of plants and algae is not clear. Bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus) and various bird species constituted only minor components of the diet, while Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) occurred in 9.2 % (CI 4.7–15.9 %) of the scats, indicating that this species may play a more important role than previously reported. The novel combination of genetic analyses of material in the fecal samples along with detailed exploration of the physical–structural properties of prey hairs and plant parts provided a much fuller picture of the diet of polar bears than would have been possible from observational studies of polar bear predation behavior alone. This approach may provide an important tool for monitoring the responses of polar bears to ongoing ecosystem changes that will result from continued warming in the Arctic.

Manuscript. Published version available in Journal of Applied Aquaculture Volume 28, 2016 - Issue 4 The aquaculture industry is under pressure to satisfy global demand for marine foods. Atlantic salmon has been bred for more than 40 years, and substantial progress has been made within the culturing and breeding programs. The improved growth rate of Atlantic salmon has been accompanied by an earlier onset of maturation. Among the factors controlling maturation in salmon are photoperiod, temperature, and body composition. Early sexual maturation is detrimental to fish health and quality when viewed from an aquacultural viewpoint. There are several approaches for alleviating this problem: (1) traditional selection, (2) manipulation of external factors affecting puberty (e.g., light), (3) novel biotechnological methods for improving breeding methods, (4) induction of polyploidy, and (5) genetic modification controlling maturation. This article presents the ecological and ethical issues connected to these approaches and argues the importance of acknowledging and discussing such issues in order to ensure that all stakeholder concerns are considered.

Large herbivores can change ecosystem functioning by impacting plant diversity. However, although such impacts are expected to be scale-dependent in ecosystems with wide-roaming ungulates, scaling issues rarely enter empirical assessments. We here test the hypothesis that the impact of increased reindeer abundance on plant diversity in alpine tundra is scale-dependent. Based on potentially high productivity of the focal habitat units and hence the possibility of positive grazer impacts on plant diversity we predicted higher α and β diversity at the habitat scale where reindeer densities are high. We also explored whether there were differences in diversity patterns at larger scales, including the scale of reindeer management districts. We estimated grazing disturbance as high versus low reindeer density in selected districts (a total extent of 7421 km2) of Northern Norway where reindeer-induced vegetation shifts are debated. We focus on dominance patterns because they can quantify the vegetation state and thus performed additive partitioning of Simpson diversity on multiple scales assessing also species’ contributions to diversity. Contrary to our predictions, we found only weak scale-dependent effects of reindeer grazing on plant diversity. Under high reindeer densities there was evidence for a landscape-scale homogenization of the vegetation, but the predicted α and β diversity increases at the habitat scale were not found. Consistently through all scales considered, four shrub species contributed the most to plant diversity. These results contradict the idea that reindeer at high stocking densities induce shifts in plant species dominance in productive habitats. We conclude that context-dependencies such as spatial scales of management units and habitat types need to be explicitly considered in evaluations of the impacts of large ungulates on plant diversity.

Grazing constitutes a selective pressure on vegetation recruitment through modification of the seed banks. Here we address changes in seed bank density and its life history trait composition in century-old pastures, where contrasting reindeer densities have developed during the last decades. We cover the actual scales used by these wide-roaming herbivores by sampling 70 productive tundra habitats over 7,421 km2 in the reindeer summer pastures of Northern Norway. Results showed that the seed bank density was significantly lowered where reindeer densities had increased in recent decades, whereas the century-long history of grazing probably explains the main seed bank traits typical of grazing tolerant plants. The dominant trait characteristics were small seeds (

Question: Different plant growth forms may have distinctly different functioning in ecosystems. Association of phenological patterns with growth form will therefore help elucidate the role of phenology in an ecosystem. We ask whether growth forms of common vascular plants differ in terms of vegetative and flowering phenology, and if such phenological differences are consistent across environmental gradients caused by landscape-scale topography. Location: A high-latitude alpine landscape in Finnmark County, Norway (70°N). Methods: We assessed vegetative and flowering phenology repeatedly in five growth forms represented by 11 common vascular plant species across an altitudinal gradient and among differing slope aspects. Results: Species phenology clustered well according to growth form, and growth form strongly explained variation in both flowering and vegetative phenology. Altitude and aspect were poor predictors of phenological variation. Vegetative phenology of the growth forms, ranked from slowest to fastest, was in the order evergreen shrubs

Foraminiferal biostratigraphy, stable isotopes and amino-acid diagenesis have been investigated in a 125 m (+ 1 to — 124 m a.s.l.) long core from Jaeren, southwestern Norway. Two marine units, the 42 m thick Grodeland Sand and the 8 m thick Sunde Sand, were found between till beds. Based on the biostratigraphic data, nine foraminiferal assemblage zones are defined. The Grodeland Sand shows a development from an ice-proximal glacial environment in the lower part, through an arctic, possibly shallow-water, environment, into a full interglacial open-shelf regime (the Grodeland Interglacial). The Grodeland Interglacial sediments (zone 6 Cassidulina laevigata-Cibicides zone) were deposited at a water depth of 20 m, in an open, high-energy shelf environment with temperature conditions similar to those prevailing in the northern North Sea today. The interglacial sediments are followed by deposits characteristic of an arctic environment which become more ice proximal upwards. Superimposed on the Grodeland Sand is a diamicton interpreted as till. Above the till is the upper marine unit (the Sunde Sand), which in the lower part yielded a shallow-water arctic fauna replaced upwards by an ice-proximal facies. The upper part of the Sunde Sand is barren of foraminifera and is superimposed by an upper till. The Sunde Interstadial is defined as a climatostratigraphic event resulting in deglaciation of western Norway and deposition of the Sunde Sand. Based on amino acid geochronology and inferences from the biostratigraphy, the Grodeland Interglacial is assigned to oxygen-isotope stage 7, whereas the Sunde Interstadial is assigned to the Early Weichselian. Combined with existing data from the North Sea region and the Norwegian Sea, it is concluded that for stage 7, in addition to stages 1 and 5e, there must have been a strong influx of Atlantic water into the Norwegian Sea north of the British Isles. This circulation created a similar north-south gradient in water masses in the North Sea to that which occurred during the Eemian and the Holocene. In the Nordic Seas, however, the stage 7 warm influx was probably restricted to the eastern part of the basin, unlike the later warm periods. This led to the development of fully interglacial conditions in the North Sea region, even though the palaeoceanographic data from the central part of the Nordic Seas suggest relatively cooler conditions for oxygen-isotope stage 7.

We discuss a 44-month longitudinal study of the stability of the two-factor Norwegian Book Suggestibility Scale for Children (BSSC; Melinder, Scullin, Gunner⊘d, & Nyborg, 2005) in a sample of 7-year-old children (M Time 2 age=94 months). Several measures of suggestibility were assessed: yielding to suggestive questions (Yield), shifting answers in response to negative feedback (Shift), the sum of Yield and Shift (Total Suggestibility), and suggestibility in response to open-ended and misleading direct and tag questions about an event experienced 44 months earlier. Results showed a moderate correlation for Total Suggestibility scores over time in spite of marked declines in Yield and Shift. Both Yield and Total Suggestibility were related to children's tendency to respond affirmatively to misleading tag questions about the past event. The two-factor model of suggestibility showed some weakening over time with a positive correlation developing between Yield and Shift.

Several studies on endozoochory have established large herbivores as important for seed dispersal, yet no studies have evaluated how endozoochory is dependent on ecological scale and context. Here we address effects of reindeer density on endozoochory in a hierarchical, multi-scale study, encompassing several ecological contexts. We found reindeer density effects on endozoochory to vary with spatial scale. Higher reindeer densities at the level of landscape areas, as indexed through faeces abundance, were related to both less species and lower abundance of emerging plants from faeces. In contrast, there was no effect of higher reindeer densities at the level of herding districts (i.e. large scale assemblages of landscapes). Lack of consistency between scales reflects ecological hierarchy, indicating that reindeer density effects on endozoochory best matches at the scale of landscapes. Pasture plant composition was only partly an important ecological factor. That is, ericoid species, the dominating plants in the pastures, were also the most abundant seed plants emerging from the faeces. However, only a small proportion of herbaceous seed plant species found in the pastures were emerging from the faeces, and their emergences were positively related to the site fertility and altitude of the pasture. Studies addressing endozoochory of ruminants are typically concerned with seed plants. In this study we found indications of that also diaspores of ferns survive the digestive tract of large herbivores. Vascular spore plants were even more abundant in the faeces than were vascular seed plants. Results from this study demonstrate that reindeer may counteract a potentially negative impact on seed limitation from their grazing by returning viable seeds in their faeces. However, in Finnmark, northern Norway, this effect is only marginal, relates only to a very few species and individuals and shows ecological scale and context dependence.

The spatial and temporal distribution of forage quality is among the most central factors affecting herbivore habitat selection. Yet, for high latitude areas, forage quantity has been found to be more important than quality. Studies on large ungulate foraging patterns are faced with methodological challenges in both assessing animal movements at the scale of forage distribution, and in assessing forage quality with relevant metrics. Here we use first-passage time analyses to assess how reindeer movements relate to forage quality and quantity measured as the phenology and cover of growth forms along reindeer tracks. The study was conducted in a high latitude ecosystem dominated by low-palatable growth forms. We found that the scale of reindeer movement was season dependent, with more extensive area use as the summer season advanced. Small-scale movement in the early season was related to selection for younger stages of phenology and for higher abundances of generally phenologically advanced palatable growth forms (grasses and deciduous shrubs). Also there was a clear selection for later phenological stages of the most dominant, yet generally phenologically slow and low-palatable growth form (evergreen shrubs). As the summer season advanced only quantity was important, with selection for higher quantities of one palatable growth form and avoidance of a low palatable growth form. We conclude that both forage quality and quantity are significant predictors to habitat selection by a large herbivore at high latitude. The early season selectivity reflected that among dominating low palatability growth forms there were palatable phenological stages and palatable growth forms available, causing herbivores to be selective in their habitat use. The diminishing selectivity and the increasing scale of movement as the season developed suggest a response by reindeer to homogenized forage availability of low quality.

The relatively recent development of azimuthal resistivity measurements enables proactive geosteering within complex reservoirs. These successful tools are the major contributor to the substantial expansion of horizontal drilling. The tools enable determining the distance (up to 5 m in ideal conditions) and the azimuthal direction to a resistivity boundary. In ideal conditions, the well is inside a high resistivity layer and the shoulder bed is low resistivity, giving geologists warning of approaching adjacent conductive beds. When the tool is in a low resistivity layer, the depth of detection of an adjacent high resistivity layer is much smaller. In these situations, it is often not possible to use the tool for effective geosteering. An extra-deep resistivity tool has been used for several years in Norway and has been introduced in the Peregrino Field in Brazil. It operates at lower frequencies, has large transmitter-receiver spacings and a depth of detection up to 25 m. This tool was deployed in addition to the conventional directional resistivity instrument. The new application in Brazil was supported by inversion software (still in development) to enable possible interpretation of the geology within the tool range. The inversion results provide information that can help identify adjacent reservoir layers while in the target zone and measure the thickness of the reservoir layer being drilled. Examples are presented from one well where the extra-deep resistivity provided early warnings and additional information that helped to steer the well successfully and maximize reservoir coverage. The extra-deep measurements from the tool also provide valuable reservoir understanding and knowledge for future well planning purposes.

The Grane field causes significant challenges with respect to reservoir drainage and wellbore placement. The true resistivity profiles from offset wells are reflecting an irregular oil water transition zone in the field, likely to be caused by subtle facies variations and/or local variations in the oil water contact(OWC). In addition, horizontal wells penetrated many shales. Baker Hughes INTEQ has in collaboration with Hydro developed an extra deep resistivity service called DeepTrak™ to navigate at a distance of up to 12 meters from a resistivity contrast boundary. This service has been used in several wells. The tools as well as the surface software components provided full service capability and were used successfully to geosteer along the OWC at the required distance. In addition, the DeepTrak service was capable of detecting shale injectites, thus giving valuable insight for reservoir characterization and geological model update. By use of field data, it is demonstrated how the DeepTrak service can be used for accurate wellbore placement.

Abstract Positioning a horizontal borehole accurately in the reservoir is critical in maximizing the recovery factor. During well planning, the well path is usually optimized based on structural interpretation of seismic surveys, which often lack resolution and accuracy. More detailed measurements, acquired while drilling, can be used to modify the borehole trajectory to improve its position in the reservoir during drilling. A limitation to geological steering is the relatively small volume of investigation of the traditional logging-while-drilling (LWD) sensors, which can typically probe no farther than a meter into the formation. Unpredictable geological events are therefore, in many cases, detected too late to allow proactive geosteering decisions. Furthermore, traditional drilling and surveying methods do not provide the necessary accuracy to position the wellbore at a fixed distance from fluid contacts over a significant horizontal length. An LWD resistivity device was developed with a much larger radial response that allows the detection of lithology features and fluid contacts that are in the tens of meters away from the borehole. This paper describes the principle of measurement of the new deepVISION Resistivity** tool, introduces the tool prototype, and proposes a method for computing distance from the tool to boundaries using conductivity contrast. Field test examples from the Grane field (offshore Norway) are also presented. The new deepVISION Resistivity tool has been tested in several horizontal wells and has demonstrated its capability to accurately determine distance to reservoir boundaries and fluid contacts. The results clearly show the tool's potential for applications such as well landing, geosteering, fault throw estimate, reservoir mapping, and reduction in true vertical depth (TVD) uncertainty. Introduction Reading deep into the formation has always been an objective of formation evaluation. Historically, when drilling vertical wells, reading deep was required to image seismic reflectors with intermediate vertical seismic profile (VSP) runs in order to "look ahead" and to overcome invasion or borehole damage with deep-resistivity devices. With horizontal well drilling, measurements are now used to identify nearby bed boundaries for geosteering purposes1,2,4. This technique requires a detailed description of the geometry and petrophysical characteristics of the reservoir. Placing the well in the right place inside the reservoir requires the ability to steer the well path according to the reservoir boundaries. However, reservoir boundaries are often beyond the radial response of LWD devices and only specialized wireline services such as the Borehole Accoustic Reflection Survey tool (BARS) have been able to detect such boundaries from within a borehole. Indirect techniques that use resistivity height functions3 derived from offset wells to locate fluid contacts have also been used with varying degrees of success. The new deepVISION Resistivity LWD device was developed for proactive well placement. The tool has a very large radial response that allows accurate determination of the distance to reservoir boundaries and fluid contacts tens of meters away from the borehole. The tool has a modular design with separate transmitter and receiver subs that can be placed anywhere in the bottomhole assembly.