Search

Detection of P. falciparum-specific subpopulations of B-cells is important for studies of immunity in malaria. This protocol relies on the photostability and protein loading capacity of carboxylated quantum dots to detect a broad range of different P. falciparum-specific B-cells. Infected red blood cell ghosts, obtained by permeabilization of infected cells with Streptolysin O, are coupled with carboxyl quantum dots using N-ethyl-N-dimethylaminopropyl-carbodiimide condensation. Immunophenotyping of P. falciparum-specific B-cells is performed by flow cytometry using Fc-receptor block, quantum dot-infected red blood cell ghost conjugates, and fluorochrome-conjugated anti-human CD19 mouse monoclonal antibodies.

Individuals may perceive personalised dietary advice as more relevant and motivational than national guidelines. Personal preference and food cost are factors that can affect consumer decisions. The objective of this study was to present a method for modelling and analysing the trade-off between deviation from preference and food cost for optimised personalised dietary recommendations. Quadratic programming was applied to minimise deviation from fish preference and cost simultaneously with different weights on the cost for 3016 Danish adults (whose dietary intake and body weight were recorded in a national dietary survey). Model constraints included recommendations for EPA, DHA and vitamin D and tolerable levels for methyl mercury, dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. When only minimising deviation from preference, 50 % of the study population should be recommended to increase fish intake, 48 % should be suggested to maintain current consumption and 2 % should be suggested to decrease fish consumption. When only minimising cost, the vast majority (99 %) should be recommended to only consume herring, which is the least-expensive fish species. By minimising deviation from preference and cost simultaneously with different weights on the cost, personalised optimal trade-off curves between deviation from fish intake preference and fish cost could be generated for each individual in our study population, except for twenty-two individuals (0·7 %) whose contaminant background exposure was too high. In the future, the method of this paper could be applied in the personal communication of healthy and safe food recommendations that fit the preferences of individual consumers.

We consider harmonic maps on simply connected Riemann surfaces into the group $\mathrm{U}(n)$ of unitary matrices of order $n$. It is known that a harmonic map with an associated algebraic extended solution can be deformed into a new harmonic map that has an $S^1$-invariant associated extended solution. We study this deformation in detail and show that the corresponding unitons are smooth functions of the deformation parameter and real analytic along any line through the origin., 9 pages

Springtime bud-break and shoot development induces substantial carbon (C) costs in trees. Drought stress during shoot development can impede C uptake and translocation. This is therefore a channel through which water shortage can lead to restricted shoot expansion and physiological capacity, which in turn may impact annual canopy C uptake. We studied effects of drought and re-hydration on early season shoot development, C uptake and partitioning in five individual 10-year old Picea mariana [black spruce] trees to identify and quantify dynamics of key morphological/physiological processes. Trees were subjected to one of two treatments: (i) well-watered control or (ii) drought and rehydration. We monitored changes in morphological [shoot volume, leaf mass area (LMA)], biochemical [osmolality, non-structural carbohydrates (NSC)] and physiological [rates of respiration (Rd) and light-saturated photosynthesis (Asat)] processes during shoot development. Further, to study functional compartmentalization and use of new assimilates, we 13C-pulse labeled shoots at multiple development stages, and measured isotopic signatures of leaf respiration, NSC pools and structural biomass. Shoot water potential dropped to a minimum of −2.5 MPa in shoots on the droughted trees. Development of the photosynthetic apparatus was delayed, as shoots on well-watered trees broke-even 14 days prior to shoots from trees exposed to water deficit. Rd decreased with shoot maturation as growth respiration declined, and was lower in shoots exposed to drought. We found that shoot development was delayed by drought, and while rehydration resulted in recovery of Asat to similar levels as shoots on the well-watered trees, shoot volume remained lower. Water deficit during shoot expansion resulted in longer, yet more compact (i.e., with greater LMA) shoots with greater needle osmolality. The 12C:13C isotopic patterns indicated that internal C partitioning and use was dependent on foliar developmental and hydration status. Shoots on drought-stressed trees prioritized allocating newly fixed C to respiration over structural components. In conclusion, temporary water deficit delayed new shoot development and resulted in greater LMA in black spruce. Since evergreen species such as black spruce retain active foliage for multiple years, impacts of early season drought on net primary productivity could be carried forward into subsequent years.

The study aimed to monitor immune responses during Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (ER)infection of chickens. The experiment comprised 39 SPF-raised female layer chickens in 3groups (n=13). Chickens in group 1 remained uninfected. Chickens in group 3 werevaccinated with a commercial inactivated ER vaccine at 17 days of age (day -13). Chickens ingroups 2 and 3 were inoculated with 0.5 x 1010 CFU ER at 30 days of age (day 0). Bloodsamples were collected at vaccination, prior to infection (day -3) and at days 1, 3, 5, 8, 11 and15 after infection.On days 2-4 one chicken in group 2 showed transient moderate signs of disease. By culture,ER was detected in blood from chickens in group 2 on day 1 (1 of 7) and on day 3 (6 of 6) at1x102 – 1x106 CFU/ml and in group 2 on day 3 (1 of 6) at 30 CFU/ml. Among circulatingleukocytes, heterophil numbers increased prominently on day 1 for chickens in groups 2 and3. For group 2 heterophil numbers remained elevated until day 5 and then decreased to preinfectionlevels For group 3 heterophil numbers returned to pre-infection levels on day 3.Serum MBL levels were significantly increased for chickens in group 2 and 3 on day 1. Forgroup 2 MBL levels increased further on day 3 and remained elevated on day 5 and returnedto pre-infection levels on day 8. For group 3 MBL levels returned to pre-infection levels onday 3. Chickens in group 2 seroconverted to ER on day 5-8 and ER antibody levels subsequently increased. Chickens in group 3 were seropositive to ER prior to infection andER antibody levels were further increased after infection.Thus, the infection elicited prompt heterophil and MBL responses and was effectively clearedby all chickens. Vaccinated chickens did however show lower levels of bacteraemia and theiracute immune responses were of shorter duration. It is likely that the vaccine raised antibodiesto ER aided this rapid elimination of bacteria e.g. through opsonisation for phagocyticclearance.

This text presents the results of a contemporary archaeological investigation of an important Swedish Cold War installation, Command Centre Bjorn. This centre was connected to the Air Force Attack ...

Purpose Establishment of an end-to-end system for the brachytherapy (BT) dosimetric chain could be valuable in clinical quality assurance. Here, the development of such a system using MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor) detectors and experience gained during 2 years of use are reported with focus on the performance of the MOSFET detectors. Methods and Materials A bolus phantom was constructed with two implants, mimicking prostate and head & neck treatments, using steel needles and plastic catheters to guide the 192Ir source and house the MOSFET detectors. The phantom was taken through the BT treatment chain from image acquisition to dose evaluation. During the 2-year evaluation-period, delivered doses were verified a total of 56 times using MOSFET detectors which had been calibrated in an external 60Co beam. An initial experimental investigation on beam quality differences between 192Ir and 60Co is reported. Results The standard deviation in repeated MOSFET measurements was below 3% in the six measurement points with dose levels above 2 Gy. MOSFET measurements overestimated treatment planning system doses by 2–7%. Distance-dependent experimental beam quality correction factors derived in a phantom of similar size as that used for end-to-end tests applied on a time-resolved measurement improved the agreement. Conclusions MOSFET detectors provide values stable over time and function well for use as detectors for end-to-end quality assurance purposes in 192Ir BT. Beam quality correction factors should address not only distance from source but also phantom dimensions.

PURPOSE: The present study aimed to establish pretreatment protocols as well as real-time and droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methodologies to detect and quantify Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (ER) DNA in blood samples from infected chickens, as tools for routine diagnostics and monitoring of experimental infections. Chicken blood is a problematic matrix for PCR analysis because nucleated erythrocytes contribute large amounts of host DNA that inhibit amplification. METHODOLOGY: Using artificially spiked samples of fresh chicken blood, as well as blood samples from three experimental infection studies, the performance of pretreatment protocols, including choice of blood stabilization agent, centrifugation speeds and Ficoll gradient separation, was evaluated. The results were compared with those from traditional culture-based protocols combined with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS).Results/Key findings. Simple preparations producing cell-free samples performed well on artificial spike-in samples, providing high sensitivity. However, performance was poor in clinical samples or artificial samples where the bacteria were incubated for 4 h or more in fresh blood prior to DNA extraction. In these samples, a Ficoll separation protocol that creates samples rich in lymphocytes, monocytes and thrombocytes prior to DNA extraction was far more effective. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that ER bacteria undergo rapid phagocytosis in chicken blood and that analysis of a blood fraction enriched for phagocytic cells is necessary for reliable detection and quantification. The presented results explain the poor performance of PCR detection reported in previously published experimental ER infection studies, and the proposed solutions are likely to have broader implications for PCR-based veterinary diagnostics in non-mammalian host species such as poultry and fish.

International audience; Whilst risk management measures, including food policy, are developed for the protection of public health and the environment, they may also lead to a reduction in health benefits. Policy decisions require then consideration of these necessary trade-offs, which leads to an increasing need to apply formal risk-benefit assessment (RBA) of foods. In this context, the European Food Safety Authority sponsored a Risk-Benefit Assessment Workshop on "past, current and future developments within the risk-benefit assessment of foods (RBA)" held in May 2017. The overall aims of the RBA Workshop were to discuss existing methods, challenges and needs within RBA, and to draft a roadmap for future development of RBA. The specific objectives were to i) identify RBA activities in Europe and globally; ii) discuss how to further develop and optimize RBA methodology; iii) identify challenges and opportunities within RBA; and iv) increase collaboration internationally. The two-day workshop gathered 28 participants from 16 institutions in 11 countries. It included technical presentations of RBA methods and case studies, and two break-out sessions for group discussions. All participants agreed that RBA has substantial potential to inform risk-management decisions in the areas of food safety, nutrition and public health. Several activities to optimize further developments within RBA were suggested. This paper provides a summary of workshop presentations, a discussion of challenges that limit progress in this area, and suggestions of next steps for this promising approach supporting a science-based decision process in the area of risk-benefit management of foods.

Fiber-based scaffolds produced by textile manufacturing technology offer versatile materials for tissue engineering applications since a wide range of crucial scaffold parameters, including porosity, pore size and interconnectivity, can be accurately controlled using 3D weaving. In this study, we developed a weavable, bioactive biodegradable composite fiber from poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and hydroxyapatite powder by melt spinning. Subsequently, scaffolds of these fibers were fabricated by 3D weaving. The differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) in vitro was studied on the 3D scaffolds and compared with differentiation on 2D substrates having the same material composition. Our data showed that the 3D woven scaffolds have a major impact on hMSCs proliferation and activation. The 3D architecture supports the differentiation of the hMSCs into osteoblast cells and enhances the production of mineralized bone matrix. The present study further confirms that a 3D scaffold promotes hMSCs differentiation into the osteoblast–lineage and bone mineralization.

Consumption patterns in a population often vary greatly and national dietary guidelines may be perceived as unrealistic by a substantial part of the population, as they differ considerably from individual preferences. Personalized recommendations may be more relevant and have stronger motivational effects, because these can account for e.g. personal preferences, needs, and beliefs. Hence, personalized recommendations may have a positive impact on public health, since higher compliance to the recommendations can be expected.We developed a method for modelling personalized dietary recommendations. The method is applied to estimate optimized fish intake in Denmark, taking into account maximum levels of chemical contaminants and minimum levels of nutrients in different fish species.A mathematical optimization model that applies quadratic programming was used to model personalized fish intake recommendations that deviate as little as possible from observed individual fish intake. Model constraints ensure that modelled intake levels meet the general recommendations for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and vitamin D without violating the tolerable intake recommendations for methyl mercury, dioxins, and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Recommendations for eleven fish species were generated for each individual in a group of 3,016 Danish adults, whose fish intakes and body weights were recorded in a national dietary survey.Our results suggest that 55 % of the study population should be recommended to increase their intake of fish with up to 184 g/week (24 % with more than 100 g/wk) and that 2 % should be recommended to decrease their fish intake. Our method is appropriate for translating recommendations for single nutrients and contaminates into personalized dietary recommendations, thanks to its multidimensional property. The method has great potential for evolving dietary guidelines by accounting for personal preference, and it can also be extended to include economy and sustainability.

This study presents a method to model personalized food recommendations that requires the smallest possible diet change. The study is both methodological, describing the quadratic programming model used, and a case study on fish intake in Denmark. Background. Recommended fish intake differs substantially from observed fish intake. In Denmark, around 15% of the population meets the Danish recommendation on fish intake. How much fish individuals eat varies greatly. There are so many different patterns of fish intake that the fish intake of the average population cannot reflect this.Objective. We developed a method that may provide realistic and achievable personalized dietary recommendations based on an individual's body weight and current fish intake. The objective of the study was to propose specific fish intake levels for individuals that meet the recommendations for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and vitamin D without violating the tolerable intake recommendations for methyl mercury, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs). Methods. Two mathematical optimization models were developed that apply quadratic programming to model personalized recommended fish intake, fulfilling criteria on nutrients and contaminants, while simultaneously deviating as little as possible from observed individual intake. A recommended intake for eight fish species was generated for each individual in a group of 3,016 Danes (1,552 women and 1,464 men, ages 18-75), whose fish intakes and body weights were known from a national dietary survey. Results. Individual, personal dietary recommendations were successfully modeled. Modeled fish intake levels were compared with observed fish intakes. For women, the average proposed increase in fish intake was 14 g/wk for lean fish and 63 g/wk for fatty fish; and for men these numbers were 12 g/wk and 55 g/wk, respectively.Conclusions. Using fish intake as an example, we show how quadratic programming models may be used to advise individual consumers on the optimization of their diet, taking both benefits and risks into account. This approach has the potential to increase compliance with dietary guidelines by targeting the individual consumers and minimizing the need for large and eventually unrealistic behavior changes.

National dietary guidelines are directed at the general population. However, these guidelines may be perceived as unrealistic by a substantial part of the population, as they differ considerably from individual consumption patterns and preferences. Personalised dietary recommendations will probably improve adherence, and it has been shown that these recommendations can be derived by mathematical optimisation methods. However, to better account for risks and benefits of specific foods, the background exposure to nutrients and contaminants needs to be considered as well. This background exposure may come from other foods and supplements, and also from environmental sources like the air and the sun. The objective of this study was therefore to analyse the effect of including individual variation in background exposure when modelling personalised dietary recommendations for fish. We used a quadratic programming model to generate recommended fish intake accounting for personal preference by deviating as little as possible from observed individual intake. Model constraints ensure that the modelled intake meets recommendations for EPA, DHA and vitamin D without violating tolerable exposure to methyl mercury, dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Several background exposures were analysed for 3016 Danish adults, whose food intakes and body weights were reported in a national dietary survey. We found that the lower nutrient constraints were critical for the largest part of the study population, and that a total of 55% should be advised to increase their fish intake. The modelled fish intake recommendations were particularly sensitive to the vitamin D background exposure.

In endeavouring to explain the empirical puzzle that the sunk costs of exporting are important, but that, at the same time, trade flows do not, on average, survive for very long, this paper explores the concepts of core and peripheral markets. First, it illustrates that if the importance of sunk costs as well as the expected future returns from exporting are different, depending on whether the export decision refers to a core or a peripheral market, it is plausible that while firms will tend to stay on the core market for a long time, they will enter and exit the peripheral market much more frequently. Second, using firm-product-destination-specific export data for all firms in the Swedish food chain for the period 1997-2007, an empirical test is carried out to ascertain whether there is support for the hypothesis that trade duration will be longer for core markets. Employing two variables that capture different aspects of the core/periphery dimension, it is found that firms will indeed tend to stay longer in their core markets, while export decisions regarding peripheral markets are much less long-term. The conclusion, therefore, is that the empirical puzzle can be explained by taking into account the fact that the trade hysteresis literature builds on data on the core market decision to export or not, and that the trade survival literature also includes data on decisions to stay in or exit peripheral markets.

This article explores whether trade facilitation – i.e. improved and simplified trade procedures – could be an important part of the reform agenda of the Barcelona Process. Adopting a Southern perspective by focusing on exports to the European Union (EU) from non-EU Mediterranean countries, it tests whether the efficiency of trade procedures affects (i) bilateral volumes of exports and (ii) the number of products exported. The findings suggest that trade facilitation could lead to substantially increased export volumes and export diversification.

Establishment of an end-to-end system for the brachytherapy (BT) dosimetric chain could be valuable in clinical quality assurance. Here, the development of such a system using MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor) detectors and experience gained during 2 years of use are reported with focus on the performance of the MOSFET detectors.A bolus phantom was constructed with two implants, mimicking prostate and headneck treatments, using steel needles and plastic catheters to guide theThe standard deviation in repeated MOSFET measurements was below 3% in the six measurement points with dose levels above 2 Gy. MOSFET measurements overestimated treatment planning system doses by 2-7%. Distance-dependent experimental beam quality correction factors derived in a phantom of similar size as that used for end-to-end tests applied on a time-resolved measurement improved the agreement.MOSFET detectors provide values stable over time and function well for use as detectors for end-to-end quality assurance purposes in

Red blood cell distribution width (RDW), a measure of variation in erythrocyte volume, has been associated with several cardiovascular disorders, but the relationship with atrial fibrillation (AF) remains unclear. We investigated the association between RDW and incidence of first hospitalization due to AF in a population-based cohort.

Composite fibers from poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and hydroxyapatite (HA) particles were prepared using melt spinning. Different loading concentrations of HA particles (i.e., 5, 10, 15, and 20 wt %) in the PLA fibers and solid-state draw ratios (SSDRs) were evaluated in order to investigate their influence on the fibers' morphology and thermal and mechanical properties. A scanning electron microscopy investigation indicated that the HA particles were homogeneously distributed in the PLA fibers. It was also revealed by atomic force microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy that HA particles were located on the fiber surface, which is of importance for their intended application in biomedical textiles. Our results also suggest that the mechanical properties were independent of the loading concentration of the HA particles and that the SSDR played an important role in improving the mechanical properties of the composite fibers.

in Undetermined A line has been drawn between the dialects of Oman and those of the coastal Gulf states in classifications of the Arabic dialects of the Arabian Peninsula (Johnstone 1967; Holes 1989 Holes 1996). Most studies reporting on this divide have dealt with the phonology, morphology and, to some extent, lexis. Little is known, however, about the degree to which these dialectal groups differ from or correspond to one another in grammatical structure. As a contribution to filling this gap, we have undertaken a joint project that compares two databases of authentic speech with the aim of studying syntactic differences and shared features. We have chosen the temporal and aspectual values and functions of the active participle (AP) as a starting point for our comparisons and the topic for a pilot study. The role of aspect and/or tense in Arabic has long been disputed, and this is particularly so with respect to the active participle (AP). In previous studies, the AP has been described as specifying various meanings associated with tense and aspect. Such analyses have been problematic due to the fact that the Arabic AP is formally a noun and lacks verbal morphology. Hence, various scholars (Eisele 1999; Kinberg 1992; Mughazy 2005) conclude that the AP in and by itself can only express present tense and/or simultaneity with the moment of speech or reference point of an utterance. All tense/aspect inference is dependent on context and/or the lexical semantics of the underlying verb. In our analysis of the AP in Gulf Arabic dialects, we have found reason to broaden our perspective and point out, maybe even more explicitly than has been previously stated, the importance of drawing a clear line in the analysis between the notion that aspectual meaning is conveyed by the AP on one hand, and the Aktionsart value of individual verb stems from which participles are formed on the other. (Less)

Biodegradable materials in the form of fibres and yarns have attracted increasing attention due to a large surface area and various geometric possibilities in three-dimensional polymeric scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. In this study, poly(lactic acid) fibres were produced by melt spinning and subsequent solid-state drawing in order to serve as matrix materials for fibre-based scaffold architectures. The processing of both monofilament and multifilament fibres as well as draw ratios and temperatures were investigated to analyze the effect of process variables on the properties. Two different polylactides with different molecular weight were studied and characterized in terms of their tensile and thermal properties and morphology. The relevance of fibre formation, solid-state drawing and drawing temperatures was clearly supported by the results, and it was shown that the physical properties, such as crystallinity, mechanical strength and ductility can be controlled largely by the drawing process. The obtained fibres demonstrated great potential to be further processed into biotextiles (woven, knitted, or nonwoven scaffolds) using the textile technologies.

International audience; no abstract

Colloidal particles were sedimented onto patterned glass slides to grow three-dimensional bicrystals with a controlled structure. Three types of symmetric tilt grain boundaries between close-packed face-centered-cubic crystals were produced: $\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Sigma}}5\phantom{\rule{4pt}{0ex}}(100),\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Sigma}}17\phantom{\rule{4pt}{0ex}}(100)$, and $\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Sigma}}3\phantom{\rule{4pt}{0ex}}(110)$. The structure of the crystals and their defects were visualized by confocal microscopy, and characterized by simple geometric measurements, including image difference, thresholding, and reprojection. This provided a quick and straightforward way to detect the regions in which the atoms are mobile. This atomic mobility was higher at the grain boundaries and close to the solid-liquid interface. This method was compared to the more conventional analysis based on the calculation of the local order parameter of the individual particles to identify the interface. This was used in turn to identify the presence of grooves at the grain-boundary\char21{}liquid triple junction for every type of grain boundary, except for the twin $[\mathrm{\ensuremath{\Sigma}}3\phantom{\rule{4pt}{0ex}}(110)]$, for which no groove could be detected. Images of these grooves were processed, and the angle linking the grain boundary energy to the solid-liquid interfacial energy was measured. The resulting values of the grain boundary energy were compared to estimates based on the density deficit in the boundary.

Background Respiratory illness is traditionally regarded as the disease of the growing pig, and has historically mainly been associated to bacterial infections with focus on Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae. These bacteria still are of great importance, but continuously increasing herd sizes have complicated the scenario and the influence of secondary invaders may have been increased. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of A. pleuropneumoniae and M. hyopneumoniae, as well as that of the secondary invaders Pasteurella multocida and Streptococcus suis by serology in four pig herds (A–D) using age segregated rearing systems with high incidences of pleuritic lesions at slaughter. Results Pleuritic lesions registered at slaughter ranged from 20.5 to 33.1 % in the four herds. In herd A, the levels of serum antibodies to A. pleuropneumoniae exceeded A450 > 1.5, but not to any other microbe searched for. The seroconversion took place early during the fattening period. Similar levels of serum antibodies to A. pleuropneumoniae were also recorded in herd B, with a subsequent increase in levels of antibodies to P. multocida. Pigs seroconverted to both agents during the early phase of the fattening period. In herd C, pigs seroconverted to P. multocida during the early phase of the fattening period and thereafter to A. pleuropneumoniae. In herd D, the levels of antibodies to P. multocida exceeded A450 > 1.0 in absence (A450

The recent literature on the duration of trade has predominantly analyzed the determinants of trade flow durations using Cox proportional hazards models. The purpose of this article is to show why it is inappropriate to analyze the duration of trade with continuous-time models such as the Cox model, and to propose alternative discrete-time models which are more suitable for estimation. In brief, the Cox model has three major drawbacks when applied to large trade data sets. First, it faces problems in the presence of many tied duration times, leading to biased coefficient estimates and standard errors. Second, it is difficult to properly control for unobserved heterogeneity, which can lead to parameter bias and bias in the estimated survivor function. Third, the Cox model imposes the restrictive and empirically questionable assumption of proportional hazards. In contrast, with discrete-time models there is no problem handling ties; unobserved heterogeneity can be controlled for without difficulty; and the restrictive proportional hazards assumption can easily be bypassed. By replicating an influential study by Besedes and Prusa (J Int Econ 70:339–358, 2006b), but employing discrete-time models as well as the original Cox model, we find empirical support for each of these arguments against the Cox model. Moreover, when comparing estimation results obtained from a Cox model and our preferred discrete-time specification, we find significant differences in both the predicted survivor functions and the estimated effects of explanatory variables on the hazard. In other words, the choice between models affects the economic conclusions that can be drawn.

In this article, it is pointed out that the European Union does not have a harmonized practice when it comes to trade procedures, implying that countries in the rest of the world face different trade barriers depending on which EU country they ship their goods to. Estimating the impact of trade procedures on exports from non-EU countries, a highly statistically significant and negative effect is found. Simulating what the effects would be of harmonizing trade procedures to the level of the most efficient EU countries, it is found that aggregated exports to the EU would increase by 20 per cent for the average exporter.