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Biofeedback with home pelvic floor exercises were recommended as non-pharmacologic treatment for non-neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTS) in children. Fitball is recommended to improve all-over flexibility, balance, and coordination, especially for pelvic floor. Aim of the study was to investigate efficacy of standard home pelvic floor exercises versus exercises using fitball.From April 2021 to February 2022 to all children arrived in our clinic with non-neurogenic LUTS nonresponder at urotherapy, our pelvic floor rehabilitative program was proposed. During the rehabilitation children performed: standard urotherapy, pelvic floor animated biofeedback therapy and pelvic floor exercises in a standard way and using a fitball. After the first session, patients received prescription to repeat at home the same exercises performed at hospital. Children who chose classic exercises were enrolled in group A and they who chose fitball in group B. Continence rate, pelvic floor muscles activity, adherence and satisfaction were evaluated by means of bladder diary, external pubococcygeus test and Likert-type psychometric scale (from 1 = very unsatisfied to 5 = very satisfied) respectively.Twenty-six children affected by LUTS were enrolled: 13 in group A and 13 in B. At 4th control urinary incontinence was reduced by 72,5% in A and 71.4% in B. Pubococcygeus test increased in both groups. Adherence at home was 92% in group A and 62% in group B. Satisfaction with the treatment (4 or 5 points) was 95% in both groups. Four patients of group A and all of group B decided to maintain home exercises including fitball.Our preliminary study shows that efficacy of home exercises, with or without fitball, is comparable. Satisfaction with fitball is high, regardless results obtained, because parents and children have learned a new, interesting and stimulating way to manage urinary problems. The opportunity to perform these exercises using fitball, it's an important finding for pediatric population.

Urethral duplication (UD) is a rare malformation, which can be associated with other anomalies, like anorectal malformations (ARM). ARM has been described with occult spinal dysraphism (OSD). No ARM-UD-OSD combination has been reported.To share our experience and to discuss the management of ARM-UD-OSD association.We retrospectively reviewed records of five boys with UD. Four of these had ARM-UD-OSD association. ARM was the first diagnosis in all; OSD and UD was detected during screening for associated malformation.All patients underwent ARM correction, 3 after colostomy. All reached fecal continence, 3 are performing bowel management. Three patients underwent UD surgical correction. Because of symptoms' worsening, 2 children had detethering surgery. At a mean follow-up of 9.5 years, all patients have normal renal function, 3 are on clean intermittent catheterization (CIC) for neurogenic bladder (1 has a cystostomy, another one an appendicostomy).UD and OSD should be considered in patients with ARM. Children with these conditions associated must be centralized in a third-level Center and management carefully planned; in particular, urethral reconstruction should be weighed, considering CIC could be required. Suspicion of neurogenic bladder must be present in OSD patient.

Objective To define safety and effectiveness of cystostomy button in the management of bladder drainage in pediatric patients with neurogenic bladder, and report our personalized surgical technique. Materials and Methods This study is a retrospective analysis of patients undergoing cystostomy button placement for bladder drainage from October 2009 to December 2015. Endoscopic and open surgical techniques and medium-term complication were analyzed and indications were recorded. Results Thirty-five patients, 16 (45.7%) females and 19 (54.3%) males, underwent cystostomy button placement for bladder drainage with a mean age of 8.6 ± 4.8 years (standard deviation) and a mean follow-up time of 37 months. There were 91.4% of patients who had a neurogenic bladder; a nonobstructive urinary retention was diagnosed in the remainder of cases. A medium-term complication was mostly represented by urinary tract infection observed in 10 of 35 patients that was the most representative cause of button removal (4 of 35). Other observed complications were button leakage (n = 2), decubitus (n = 1), and bladder stone (n = 1). No postoperative complication was observed and no differences were found in terms of complications in the two surgical approaches performed. Conclusion Cystostomy button is a safe and effective treatment for bladder drainage in neurogenic pediatric patients and it is also well accepted by patients and caregivers. Cystostomy button, which may avoid mechanical concerns and most of the social discomfort, should be considered an alternative method to other bladder drainage modalities.

Epididymo-orchitis (EO) is infrequently reported in anorectal malformation (ARM) cases. Therefore, it is difficult to assess its risk factors. A total of 110 male patients who were operated on for ARM at the same Institution over a period of 13 years were contacted. Association was assessed between EO and the following: spinal dysraphism (SD), symptomatic VUR (VUR), and bowel management (BM) requiring enemas. The data were analyzed with the Chi-square test. A total of 89 patients were contacted. Ten cases of EO were found, and all occurred in patients with recto-urethral (RU) fistula after reconstruction. The patients’ age at first episode ranged between 4 and 11 years. RU fistula patients experiencing EO (Group A, 10 patients) were compared with those without EO (Group B, 33 patients). VUR occurred in 9/10 cases in Group A and in 13/33 cases in group B (Chi-square 7.8658, p = 0.005038). SD was present in 4/10 cases in group A and in 13/33 cases in Group B (Chi-square 0.0434, p = 0.83491). A total of 8/10 cases in Group A and 12/33 cases in Group B were on BM (Chi-square 5.87, p = 0.0015). EO occurs in approximately in 20 % of male cases with ARM, and recto-urinary communication and should be considered the primary diagnosis in the presence of testicular pain. This could avoid unnecessary surgical exploration, and the family should be counseled about this subject

Objective To determine whether urinary incontinence (UI) and lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) persist over years, patients treated for UI and LUTS in childhood were re-evaluated in adulthood. Materials and methods Forty-seven women (cases) treated in childhood for daytime UI/LUTS (group A) and nocturnal enuresis (group B) self-completed (average age: 24.89 ± 3.5 years) the International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire for Female with LUTS (ICIQ-FLUTS). ICIQ-FLUTS was self-administered to 111 healthy women (average age: 23 ± 5.1 years) from a nursing school as a control group. Data obtained from ICIQ-FLUTS and quality of life (QoL) score (0–10) were compared (Fisher's exact test) between patients and controls, and between group A (n = 28) and group B (n = 19). Results Prevalence of LUTS was higher in patients than in controls. The difference between patients and controls was statistically significant (p = 0.0001) for UI (34% vs. 7%) and feeling of incomplete bladder emptying (49% vs. 28%). QoL score was >5 in 59% of patients and 1% of controls (p = 0.0001). No significant differences were found between groups A and B. Conclusions UI and LUTS are confirmed in young women who suffered for the same condition in childhood. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess if these symptoms persist or are newly onset.

Background. Ovarian torsion (OT) is a serious condition, and delay in surgical intervention may result in loss of the ovary. Children and adolescents who have suffered from ovarian torsion may be at risk for asynchronous torsion of the contralateral ovary. Study objective. Three cases of asynchronous bilateral ovarian torsion were reported to analyse clinical history of three patients, to review the current literature, and to draw a conclusion for future treatment. Design. Case reports and review of the literature. Result. When a prepubertal girl presents with an ovarian torsion, several considerations have to be taken in account in order to preserve her future fertility; in particular, the pediatric surgeon/gynecologist has to preserve as much as possible the twisted ovary in addition to considering the fate of the contralateral ovary. Summary and Conclusions. Pelvic pain in a young girl has always raised the clinical suspect of an ovarian torsion; the possibility of asynchronous bilateral ovarian torsion is rare, but it is described in the literature and has catastrophic consequences; this condition has to be known and treated in the proper way by pediatric surgeons as well as by gynecologists in order to maximize the future fertility of the young patients.

Bladder dysfunction is a broad term used to describe different dysfunctional conditions of the bladder-sphincter complex, due to nonneurogenic and neurogenic causes. The International Children’s Continence Society (ICCS) provided guidelines on bladder dysfunctions which are better defined with the term lower urinary tract dysfunctions (LUTD) [3–6, 16, 17]. The ICCS classified two main groups of nonneurogenic conditions: nighttime (enuresis) and daytime (overactive bladder – OAB, dysfunctional voiding – DV, underactive bladder – UB, bladder and bowel dysfunction – BBD) conditions. They are more common problems in children and adolescents, leading to urinary incontinence (UI); LUTD seriously affect quality of life. Neurogenic bladder (NB) is the term applied to LUTD due to congenital or acquired neurological lesions. Depending on the site of neurological insult, urodynamic studies show pattern of detrusor overactivity or underactivity with or without sphincter dyssynergia. Due to pathophysiological reasons, urinary tract infection (UTI) and vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) are strong comorbid conditions in both nonneurogenic and neurogenic LUTD. This chapter focuses on definition, pathophysiology, and assessment of both nonneurogenic and neurogenic LUTD.

Study technique (dynamic renal scan, static renal scintigraphy and indirect radionuclide cystoscintigraphy) has been reported in the previous chapter.

A variety of electrical nerve stimulation methods has been used through the years to treat lower urinary tract dysfunction. Relevant literature was reviewed to analyze techniques and available biomedical devices, technique applicability, indications and usefulness in pediatrics.An extensive search was performed on PubMed® and MEDLINE® for scientific publications on intravesical, transcutaneous, sacral spine and root, and tibial nerve stimulation in children with lower urinary tract dysfunction of nonneurogenic and neurogenic origin. Relevant articles and controlled studies in adult patients were also considered. The search covered the period 1990 to 2009 and we found approximately 400 articles, of which 29 related to pediatrics.Due to feasibility problems with placebo studies the majority of the studies were noncontrolled, some of them clinical trials on acute urodynamic changes during electrical stimulation or experimental research in animals. Overall only a few randomized trials were found. Regarding types of electrostimulation and indications in children the recent literature emphasizes stimulation far from the anal-genital region, such as sacral transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, mainly for refractory overactive bladder. Intravesical stimulation is the procedure of choice to enhance sensation in patients with incomplete neurogenic lesions. Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation is tolerated by children but has been poorly studied. Sacral neuromodulation using implanted devices remains questionable and needs further clarification of its indications. Magnetic stimulation has rarely been used in children to date. More experimental studies are needed to assess the method of action and refine the parameters of stimulation.Clinical controlled trials vs sham devices and predictable variables for successful response are urgently needed to address an apparently renewed focus on the use of nerve stimulation in the treatment of pediatric lower urinary tract symptoms.

Followup of total urogenital mobilization for persistent urogenital sinus is well established anatomically and functionally. Nevertheless, studies comparing bladder function in different subsets of patients with urogenital sinus, such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia and cloaca, are scant.We reviewed the records of patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and cloaca who underwent total urogenital mobilization and urodynamics in the last 10 years. Those with a short urogenital sinus (less than 2.5 cm) not requiring an abdominal approach and without spinal dysraphism were selected for study. Urodynamics were performed postoperatively before and after toilet training, and compared between patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and cloaca. Methods, definitions and units conformed to International Continence Society/International Children's Continence Society standards. For the emptying phase we defined bladder outlet obstruction as maximum detrusor pressure greater than 70 cm H(2)O and underactive detrusor as maximum detrusor pressure less than 20 cm H(2)O plus post-void residual urine greater than 25 ml.Six patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and 6 with cloaca met study criteria. Three patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and 4 with cloaca underwent urodynamics before and after toilet training at a median age of 2 (range 2 to 4) and 5 years (range 3 to 8), respectively. Urodynamics were done in 1 patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia before toilet training, and in 2 with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and 2 with cloaca after toilet training. All patients had normal urodynamics except 1 with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and detrusor overactivity, which normalized after toilet training. In all cloaca cases urodynamics were abnormal. Before toilet training bladder outlet obstruction was found in 2 patients, detrusor underactivity was found in 1 and detrusor overactivity was found in the remaining 1. After toilet training a detrusor underactivity pattern was found in 4 patients and bladder outlet obstruction was found in 2. All patients except 1 with cloaca had post-void residual urine before and after toilet training (median 100 ml, range 25 to 200). After toilet training all patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia became spontaneously dry and all with cloaca were placed on clean intermittent catheterization.In the long term patients with cloaca show bladder outlet obstruction or underactive/acontractile detrusor patterns, which are not noted in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Therefore, in patients with cloaca urogenital sinus length may not be as good an indicator of functional results as it is in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Whether additional rectal dissection and repositioning surgical procedures in cloaca cases may have a role in explaining such a difference remains to be clarified.

To evaluate the reliability of estimates of bladder volume (BV) in children made with the BladderScan BVI 2500 (BS) and their agreement with standard ultrasound (US) measurements.BV was measured using both US and BS in 92 children (41 females, 51 males; age range 3 months to 16 years) who underwent standard US measurements for various reasons. Patients were stratified into three groups according to age (3-35, 36-83 and83 months) and BV (20%, 20-50% and50% of expected bladder capacity for age). US and BS measurements were compared by means of the percentage difference and Pearson's correlation coefficient (r); limits of clinical agreement were evaluated by means of Bland-Altman analysis.Overall, a difference of -12.9% and a correlation coefficient of r = 0.98 were found between US and BS. The percentage difference was higher in younger patients (-27.8%) and for low volumes (-24.8%). Correlation analysis confirmed this trend in different age (3-35 months, r = 0.74; 36-83 months, r = 0.93;83 months, r = 0.97) and BV (20%, r = 0.70; 20-50%, r = 0.94;50%, r = 0.97) groups. Bland-Altman analysis showed large limits of clinical agreement between the two methods in terms of overall measurements (-45 to 29.3 ml) and in both age (-25.3 to 56.9 ml) and BV (-27.5 to 52.5 ml) groups.A good correlation between US and BS measurements of BV was found in children aged7 years and in those with a BV20% of expected bladder capacity. Thus, BS avoids the need for standard US equipment to assess BV for schoolchildren with voiding dysfunction. Nevertheless, a dedicated BS instrument should be used in younger children.

With the constant advances in technology and expertise of prenatal diagnosis, necessity of early counseling in cases of bilateral obstructive uropathy has become of paramount importance. To better evaluate fetal renal function new biochemical (serum and urine) fetal markers have been introduced in the literature. However, they are only available at select centers and always requiring an invasive approach. Furthermore, paucity of normal controls sometimes makes interpretation of results difficult. Owing to this growing interest towards biochemical evaluation of fetal renal function, assessment of amniotic fluid, which is mostly expression of fetal urination, has progressively fallen into disrepute, and studies comparing the amount of amniotic fluid with renal function are scant.In a 3-year period 28 cases of bilateral obstructive uropathy were seen prenatally at the Artemisia Medical Center. All cases were initially reviewed at 17 to 20 weeks of gestation when a distended fetal bladder with thickened wall and enlarged kidneys were visualized. At the same time ultrasonographic assessment of amniotic fluid was performed by calculating the amniotic fluid index. An amniotic fluid index less than the 25th percentile was considered below average and an index less below the 5th percentile was considered oligohydramnios, whereas an index between 50th and 75th percentiles was considered normal. All cases were subsequently evaluated for renal function up to age 1 year. Impaired renal function was defined as a serum creatinine greater than 1.2 mg/dl before age 1 year.Of the 28 cases 18 had an index of oligohydramnios (group 1) and 10 had a normal index (group 2). No significant variations were observed in amniotic fluid index at repeated consultations throughout pregnancy. Two cases in group 1 and 1 case in group 2 were lost to followup while in the other group 1 cases intrauterine death occurred. Bilateral obstructive uropathy was confirmed in all instances after birth as valves in 18 cases and urethral atresia in 3. Of the 12 surviving group 1 cases there were 3 neonatal deaths from severe lung hypoplasia, and in the remaining 9 cases mean serum creatinine at each evaluation before age 1 year was 1.3 +/- 0.2 mg/dl. All patients in group 2 survived with a mean serum creatinine at each evaluation of 0.6 +/- 0.1 mg/dl (p0.05).Despite widespread use of prenatal biochemistry, evaluation of amniotic fluid by the amniotic fluid index remains a reproducible and inexpensive method to predict renal function in cases of bilateral obstructive uropathy of any origin. It retains its validity not only in severe, but also in milder reductions. Conversely, intact amniotic fluid mostly invariably predicts normal renal function at long-term evaluation. For a better understanding of the disease such information is to be promptly conveyed to the prospective parents at each prenatal consultation.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate 10 years of experience, and thus define the occurrence and causes, of neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction in children with pelvic neoplasms treated by surgery. PATIENTS AND METHODS From 1991 to 2000, 33 children were operated by the same surgeons for pelvic neoplasms; 11 were analysed, comprising four each with sacrococcygeal teratoma (ST) and ganglioneuroma, and one each with yolk sac tumour (YST), neuroblastoma and myofibroblastic bladder sarcoma (MBS). The other patients were not assessed because eight had died or were in severe progression, three were treated by bladder substitution and the others were lost to follow-up or refused a urological evaluation. All 11 children were evaluated at ≥ 6 months after surgery with a questionnaire about bowel and voiding habits, a neurological and orthopaedic assessment, a noninvasive urodynamic study, renal ultrasonography and spinal and pelvic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). All patients with signs of bladder dysfunction were evaluated by a pressure-flow study. The results were analysed for surgical approach and anatomical involvement, i.e. group A, extensive surgery for complete tumour excision in the sacral area (ST and YST); group B, surgery for tumour resection in the paraspinal ganglia area (neuroblastoma and ganglioneuroma); and group C, bladder tumour with partial bladder resection (MBS). RESULTS Eight patients had signs or symptoms related to bladder sphincter dysfunction. One child refused the invasive urodynamic evaluation, leaving seven for analysis (two each ST and ganglioneuroma, one each YST, neuroblastoma and MBS). The urodynamic findings were normal in three children. On spinal and pelvic MRI a presacral lipoma with syringomyelia was discovered in one child with ST. Eight children had bladder dysfunction and two had no neurogenic damage (which was only in sacral tumours); in one child it was related to an upper motor neurone lesion from spinal dysraphism and in the other to a lower motor neurone lesion from surgical injury to the splanchnic nerves. Patients operated for paraspinal tumours had more bladder dysfunction but no signs of neurogenic damage, as did the patient with partial bladder resection. However in Group B, there may have been a transient or incomplete nerve injury in one patient. CONCLUSIONS Deficits of parasympathetic, sympathetic and somatic innervation of the bladder and the urethra may occur in children after surgery for pelvic neoplasms, related to minor or major surgical trauma. In ST, a tethered cord may be associated with mixed neurogenic damage. Knowledge of bladder dysfunction in anorectal malformations, spinal dysraphism, etc. and the clinical protocol used in these patients also seemed to be useful for understanding the development of voiding dysfunction in patients with neoplasm.

Functional urinary incontinence (UI) and lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) are more common problems in children and adolescents, which may seriously affect quality of life. They are 1.5 times more common in girls than in boys at age 7 years, whereas at age 16 years the difference is more pronounced: five to ten times more common in girls than in boys. The prevalence of UI and LUTS is widely variable between 3.2 and 9 % in different studies (Abrams P, Cardozo L, Khoury S, Wein A (2013) Incontinence. ICUD-EAU eds). The main explanation of this wide variation is that different studies have used different definitions and criteria to define UI and LUTS. In 2006 the International Children’s Continence Society (ICCS) published a standardized terminology for lower urinary tract (LUT) function and dysfunctions (LUTD) to provide guidelines for the classifications and communication about UI and LUTS in children (Neveus et al. J Urol 176: 314–324, 2006). The ICCS has classified daytime LUTD in two main groups: overactive bladder (OAB), including urge incontinence, and dysfunctional voiding (DV), with or without underactive bladder. The two groups may overlap and clinical distinction between OAB and DV is based on characteristics of four symptoms: incontinence, voiding frequency, micturition volumes, and fluid intake. Knowledge of both LUTD is mandatory to distinguish children with OAB from those with DV and to offer correct treatment. Therefore, definition, pathophysiology, and clinical assessment of both OAB and DV will be provided in this chapter, focusing on treatment of DV.

We evaluated the natural evolution of detrusor voiding contractility in boys who underwent posterior urethral valve ablation using pressure flow analysis, which is a mathematical computerized analysis of pressure flow studies.Among 30 boys with posterior urethral valves who were being prospectively followed, even if asymptomatic on serial pressure flow studies, 11 were included in our study. These 11 patients had had at least 2 evaluations performed between ages 5 and 15 years, a minimum interval of 4 years between the first and last examination, and all pressure flow studies records available for mathematical analysis of voiding contractility. The first examination had been done at ages 5 to 10 years (average 7 +/- 2.04) and the last one at ages 9 to 15 (12.5 +/- 2.5), including 6 evaluated after puberty. All but 1 patient underwent valve endoscopic resection as a newborn and none received urinary diversion. Voiding symptoms, post-void residual, cystometric bladder capacity and bladder instability were considered. Voiding phase maximal detrusor pressure and flow rate were evaluated and detrusor contractility was calculated by the pressure flow analysis parameters of contraction velocity, detrusor contractile power expressed as watt factor and Schafer's nomogram. Contraction velocity and contractile power factor were considered low if below 2 standard deviations of previously determined normal values. True hypocontractility was diagnosed when at least 2 pressure flow analysis parameters were low.True hypocontractility was detected in 3 of the 11 boys at the first examination and in 8 at the last pressure flow analysis. The remaining 8 and 3 cases of first and last examinations, respectively, were considered to have normal contractility even if 4 of the 8 and 1 of the 3 had 1 low pressure flow analysis parameter (covert hypocontractility). Detrusor contractility worsened in 6 patients, hypocontractility was detected at the first pressure flow analysis in 2, hypocontractility changed to normal in 1 and pressure flow analysis remained normal in 2. Of the 6 boys followed through puberty 5 had hypocontractility, including 3 with cystometric bladder capacity greater than 700 ml., high post-void residual and strained voiding. Of the 11 patients 8 had detrusor instability, including 7 with urge symptoms, at first evaluation which was not found at last examination.Pressure flow analysis extensively used in men has been confirmed as a useful tool to assess voiding contractility in children. The majority of boys with posterior urethral valves have progressive impairment of detrusor contractility at voiding many years after relief of obstruction. The pattern of hypocontractility, which is detected early on pressure flow analysis, follows a prolonged phase of instability in many cases and leads to an over distended bladder in most patients followed after puberty. Questions arise if this evolution may be prevented by early (pharmacological or rehabilitative) treatment and if it is partially determined by extensive use of drugs acting against unstable detrusor contractions.

Objective To determine whether bladder dysfunction in boys with posterior urethral valves (PUV) changes from a uniform pattern of hypercontractility during infancy to the hypocontractility found in adolescence, by reviewing serial urodynamic studies. Patients and methods Thirty boys with PUV and no voiding symptoms underwent a total of 86 urodynamic tests (mean 2.8 each). The first urodynamic study was undertaken at 1–4 years of age in 15 boys and at 5–13 years in 15. They were re-evaluated at least 3 years later; 15 patients underwent the first and last urodynamic study, respectively, at a mean age of 2.8 and 7.7 years (group A), 10 boys at 6.2 and 8.8 years (group B) and five at 9.4 and 15.2 years (group C). In 10 boys aged > 5 years the first and last pressure-flow studies (PFS) were analysed using an advanced analysis (PFA) to better identify hypocontractility. Results Bladder dysfunction was found in 21 of 30 (70%) boys at the first evaluation and in 18 (60%) at the last. In 25 boys the urodynamic pattern changed. Of the 15 boys in group A, 10 of 12 who had hypercontractility changed to normal (seven), low compliance (one) or hypocontractility (two), and two remained stable; two of the remaining three with normal urodynamic studies changed to hypocontractility, while one was unchanged. Among the 10 boys in group B, six with hypercontractility changed to normal (three) or hypocontractility (three); two with normal urodynamic findings and one with low compliance changed to hypocontractility. Of the five boys in group C who showed severe hypocontractility after puberty, three had a normal pattern, one low compliance and one hypercontractility before puberty. The PFA showed a ‘weak’ detrusor in four of the seven boys who were considered normal on standard PFS. At the urodynamic follow-up, the PFA pattern changed to a ‘weak’ detrusor in four boys who had a normal (two) or strong (two) detrusor at the first evaluation. Conclusions Bladder dysfunction in boys with PUV changes during childhood and through adolescence. The urodynamic pattern of hypercontractility generally found soon after valve ablation gradually changes to hypocontractility in many boys and this pattern seems to be the rule after puberty. The evidence from this series supports the hypothesis that long-term detrusor hyperactivity in boys with PUV leads to detrusor failure, but a longitudinal 15-year follow-up from birth to puberty is needed to validate this concept.

The understanding of pathophysiology of obstructed uropathy has been facilitated by animal models with partial ureteric obstruction. Some studies on partially obstructed adult rats have drawn attention to a biphasic pattern of obstructive uropathy: an initial 'destructive' phase and a 'steady' phase in which renal deterioration no longer occurs and in which relief of obstruction would be of no advantage. We aimed to verify if this pattern applies also to younger (weanling) rats with more immature kidneys, resembling those of the human fetus. We measured the NAG-values in the urine samples of partially obstructed animals at different intervals of obstruction and in those of controls. The biphasic pattern proved to be the same as in adult rats as was previously documented, but the turning point occurred earlier (between 10 and 15 days of obstruction). Furthermore, there is evidence of low level values of N-Acetyl-Glucosaminidase (NAG) in the early phase of obstruction (5 days), demonstrating that the increase of tubular enzyme is not due to the operation itself. There is evidence that, if the 'destructive' phase can be precisely identified by biochemical studies, this could help identifying those subjects who could benefit from relief of obstruction.

We evaluated pain tolerability and the preliminary results of percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation (PTNS) in children with unresponsive lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS).A total of 23 children 4 to 17 years old with LUTS refractory to conventional treatment underwent PTNS at 12, 30-minute weekly sessions. Ten patients had idiopathic overactive bladder, 7 were in nonneurogenic urinary retention and 6 had neuropathic bladder. Ten children were carefully evaluated for pain during needle insertion and electrical stimulation using certain scoring systems, namely the faces pain rating scale, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario pain scale, visual analogue scale and Questionario Italiano del Dolore. Evaluation was done at the first, sixth and last sessions. An anxiety-depression test was administered. All 23 children underwent clinical and urodynamic evaluation before and after treatment.All except 1 patient completed treatment. An anxious-depressive trait was found in 7 of 10 children/parents on anxiety-depression testing. Regarding pain, the faces pain rating scale never showed the severe pain face, the Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario scale showed signs of pain at the beginning of each stimulation but not at the end, and the visual analog scale generally showed a low score with a further decrease during the first (p = 0.05), sixth (p = 0.03) and twelfth (p = 0.02) sessions. The Questionario Italiano del Dolore score was significantly related to the affective component of pain (p = 0.002) and it decreased between the first and last sessions. The 10 children with overactive bladder had symptom improvement in 80%, incontinence was cured in 5 of 9 and urodynamics showed normalization of cystometric bladder capacity in 62.5% with no more unstable contractions in those who became continent. Symptoms improved in 71% of the children in urinary retention. One of 3 and 4 of 7 patients had incontinence and post-void residual urine cured, respectively. Urodynamics showed an improved detrusor pressure at maximum flow (p = 0.009) and flow rate (p = 0.005). Symptoms and urodynamics did not significantly change in the neuropathic bladder group.PTNS is safe, minimally painful and feasible in children. It seems helpful for treating refractive nonneurogenic LUTS.

We studied whether noninvasive urodynamic evaluation can be as effective and safe as invasive urodynamics in detecting lower urinary tract dysfunction and in preventing late onset renal failure during long-term management of boys with posterior urethral valves.We evaluated 47 boys with posterior urethral valves using repeat urodynamics. A total of 28 patients with followup of at least 3 years and repeat evaluation of serum creatinine were included in the study. The first 14 boys in the series underwent cystometry and pressure-flow study at least every 3 years (group A), and the remaining 14 patients were monitored annually from age 5 with bladder diary, uroflowmetry, post-void residual urine on ultrasound and serum creatinine (group B). Lower urinary tract dysfunction and serum creatinine were compared (Fisher exact test and Mann-Whitney test) between groups A and B, and by stratifying patients into subgroups by age (5 to 6, 7 to 13 and older than 13 years). In all patients urodynamic diagnosis of lower urinary tract dysfunction was matched and confirmed with lower urinary tract symptoms.During followup the prevalence of lower urinary tract dysfunction did not differ significantly between group A (71% in boys 5 to 6, 43% in boys 7 to 13 and 85% in boys older than 13 years) and group B (36%, 43% and 60%, respectively). Late onset renal failure was observed in 2 boys in group A and 2 in group B.Noninvasive urodynamic evaluation seems to be as safe and effective as invasive urodynamic study in the long-term management of boys with posterior urethral valves. Based on these findings, invasive urodynamics may be reserved for cases of progressive deterioration of lower urinary tract dysfunction or renal function.

Botulinum toxin type A has revolutionized the treatment of neurogenic bladder dysfunction. The original injection technique used a rigid cystoscope and a flexible collagen needle. To date botulinum toxin type A injection techniques have not been standardized. We present our experience in pediatric patients using a new flexible injection system.We treated 24 patients 3.8 to 17.5 years old who had neurogenic bladder dysfunction with botulinum toxin type A bladder and/or sphincter injection using a rigid cystoscope and the new N-DO™ endo-injector needle system. Another 24 patients 3.6 to 17.8 years old were treated with a 3.7Fr standard flexible needle and served as controls. Operative time, hospital stay, complications and efficacy were considered. Selection criteria and treatment were the same in the 2 groups. The 10 IU/kg dose was determined according to European Association of Urology guidelines.All patients received botulinum toxin type A bladder injection while 11 patients in the endo-injector group and 5 controls also received urethral injection. In the endo-injector needle and control groups average operative time was 12.4 and 17.3 minutes for the bladder, and 5.1 and 10.1 minutes for the urethra, respectively (each p0.05). All patients were discharged home the day after the procedure. No complications were observed. Urodynamics revealed an average maximum detrusor pressure decrease of 25 and 21 cm H(2)O, and an average bladder capacity increase of 75 and 80 ml in the endo-injector and control groups, respectively (p not significant).While retaining efficacy, the endo-injector needle technique appears to be more rapid than the standard procedure for botulinum toxin type A injection for neurogenic bladder dysfunction. Whether patients may be treated with sedation only remains to be clarified.

Lower urinary tract symptoms are common in pediatric patients. To our knowledge no validated instruments properly designed to screen lower urinary tract symptoms in the pediatric population have been published to date. In the International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire Committee the psychometric properties of a screening questionnaire for pediatric lower urinary tract symptoms were assessed.The 12-item International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire-Pediatric Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms was developed in child and parent self-administered versions, and produced in English, Italian and German using a standard cross-cultural adaptation process. The questionnaire was self-administered to children 5 to 18 years old and their parents presenting for lower urinary tract symptoms (cases) or to pediatric/urological clinics for other reasons (controls). A case report form included history, urinalysis, bladder diary, flowmetry/post-void residual urine volume and clinician judgment on whether each child did or did not have lower urinary tract symptoms. Questionnaire psychometric properties were evaluated and data were stratified into 3 age groups, including 5 to 9, 10 to 13 and 14 to 18 years.A total of 345 questionnaires were completed, of which 147 were negative and 198 were positive for lower urinary tract symptoms. A mean of 1.67% and 2.10% of items were missing in the child and parent versions, respectively. Reliability (Cronbach's α) was unacceptable in only the 5 to 9-year-old group. The high ICC of 0.847 suggested fair child/parent equivalence. Sensitivity and specificity were 89% and 76% in the child version, and 91% and 73.5% in the parent version, respectively.The questionnaire is an acceptable, reliable tool with high sensitivity and specificity to screen for lower urinary tract symptoms in pediatric practice. Problems related to literacy suggest use of the child versions for patients older than 9 years. In research this questionnaire could be used to recalibrate the prevalence of lower urinary tract symptoms in children.

Objective: Oligohydramnios (OA) is nowadays regarded as one of the best markers of renal function (RF) impairment in bladder outlet obstruction (BOO) detected in utero. As such, its onset is usually early and progressive because of decline in fetal urine production. A series of acute OA complicating pregnancies with BOO has never been reported. Methods: Over a 7-year period, 5 fetuses with in utero suspicion of BOO exhibited an abrupt decrease of amniotic fluid after the 30th week of gestation. Results: All fetuses were delivered by cesarean section: diagnosis was posterior urethral valves in 3 cases, urethral atresia in 1, and prune-belly syndrome in 1. Urologic work-up demonstrated a unilateral vesicoureteral reflux dysplasia (VURD syndrome) in all 5 fetuses. RF at 1 year was normal in 4 fetuses and impaired in 1. Conclusions: Besides obstetrical reasons, OA may also have acute onset occurring in the presence of anomalies of the urinary tract; although diagnosis is almost always BOO, functional and anatomical characteristics of the urinary tract are those of VURD syndrome with a non-functioning, refluxing renal unit. The associated acute OA/VURD syndrome may represent a milder expression of a pop-off mechanism advocated in this syndrome with a more favorable prognosis than progressive OA detected early in pregnancy.

We evaluated the efficacy of percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation for different types of pediatric lower urinary tract dysfunction.A total of 14 children with idiopathic overactive bladder, 14 with dysfunctional voiding, 5 with underactive bladder, 4 with underactive valve bladder and 7 with neurogenic bladder resistant to conventional therapy underwent percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation weekly for 12 weeks. The stimulation effect was evaluated by comparing bladder diary, flowmetry and urinalysis before and after treatment. Improved patients were followed by bladder diary and urinalysis. Followup data at 1 and 2 years were compared with those obtained after stimulation. Data were analyzed using Fisher's exact test.Symptom improvement was significantly greater in nonneurogenic than in neurogenic cases (78% vs 14%, p0.002). Of patients 18% with underactive bladder and 50% with underactive valve bladder were unresponsive. Of 14 overactive bladder cases 12 and all 14 of dysfunctional voiding were improved (p not significant). Of improved patients 5 of 12 with overactive bladder and 12 of 14 with dysfunctional voiding were cured (p0.01). On uroflowmetry voided volume and post-void residual urine became normal in a greater number of dysfunctional voiding than overactive bladder cases (57% vs 20% and 57% vs 25%, each p not significant). At 1 year of followup the cure rate was greater in dysfunctional voiding than in overactive bladder cases (71% vs 41%) and it remained the same at the 2-year evaluation. Chronic stimulation was necessary to maintain results in 29% of dysfunctional voiding and 50% of overactive bladder cases.Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation is reliable and effective for nonneurogenic, refractory lower urinary tract dysfunction in children. Efficacy seems better in dysfunctional voiding than in overactive bladder cases. There is evidence that percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation should be part of the pediatric urology armamentarium when treating functional incontinence.

From 1976 to 1994, we followed 55 children with occult spinal dysraphism (OSD). The average age at diagnosis was 4.5 years (range: 24 days–21 years). In 13 cases the OSD was associated with anorectal anomalies. Urologic symptoms were present at diagnosis in 24 children (43%), but urinary incontinence affected all patients in the evolution of the OSD. At diagnosis, all children underwent complete neurourologic and urodynamic evaluation. Nine required early neurosurgical correction, before 3 years of age. During follow-up, intermittent clean catheterization was started in all patients. Vesicoureteral reflux was present or developed in 17 patients: 15 underwent endoscopic procedures and 2 required bladder augmentation because of upper-tract and renal-function deterioration. Endoscopic treatment for urinary incontinence was performed in 3 children. At long-term follow-up (6 to 18 years), socially acceptable continence was achieved in 78% of the children; renal failure occurred in 8. The long-term results were analyzed in order to compare the evolution of urinary continence and renal function in children with OSD with or without neurosurgery.

Purpose Neurovesical dysfunction (NVD) is common in children with anorectal malformation (ARM). NVD is mainly related to tethered cord or iatrogenic injury but how to investigate it is still debated. We evaluate the usefulness of routine magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and urodynamics (UDS) for ARM. Materials and Methods A total of 89 children were screened for sacral, spinal or urological anomalies using sacrum x-ray, MRI, renal and spinal ultrasound, uroflowmetry and/or 4-hour voiding observation. UDS was performed in 60 patients with suspected NVD. Mean ± SD followup was 9.8 ± 5.2 years. Results Of the 89 patients 29 presented with urinary tract anomalies. The prevalence of sacral (53 cases) and spinal cord (54) anomalies was no different between patients with low, intermediate and high ARM. Spinal cord tethering was present in 13 patients with a normal sacrum x-ray. NVD was found in 31 of the 89 patients (hyperreflexia 21 and hypo-areflexia 10), and was associated with sacral and spinal anomalies in 23, occult spinal dysraphism without bone lesion in 3 and sacral anomalies in 5. The incidence of NVD was 40% of cases with low and 51% with high ARM. Conclusions Because tethered cord occurs in children without sacral anomalies as well as in those with low ARM, we recommend evaluation of all patients using MRI. When MRI is positive UDS should be performed. We agree with a previous suggestion to evaluate all males with rectourethral fistula and females with cloaca malformations. Finally we recommend a noninvasive evaluation for all other children and UDS when neurogenic dysfunction is suspected.

Objectif: Examiner les differences par sexe, l'âge a la presentation et la severite des dysfonctions vesicales chez les enfants ayant un reflux vesico-uretral. Patients et Methodes: Une cystometrie etait obtenue chez 37 enfants (24 garcons et 13 filles) âges de 2 a 24 mois ayant un reflux vesico-uretral de stage II a IV. La presence d'une elevation de la pression maximale du detrusor a la miction (definie comme augmentee a partir de 90 cm H 2 O) ou d'une instabilite etaient considerees comme l'expression d'une hypercontractilite. Resultats: La prevalence de l'hypercontractilite etait de 75% (18/24) chez les garcons et de 46% (6/13) chez les filles (p

Purpose To date no validated instruments are available to screen lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) in children, even if several questionnaires deal with clinical outcome. We developed and tested for validity a screener tool (ICIQ-CLUTS), to detect LUTS in children Material and Methods A 12-items questionnaire had been designed by experts, in a children's (ICIQ-CLUTSchildren) and parents' (ICIQ-CLUTSparents) version, and submitted to a standard cross-cultural adaptation process, simultaneously in English, Italian and German languages. Items investigated: age, gender, urinary tract infection, enuresis, daytime incontinence, daytime frequency, urgency, voiding postponement, straining to void, urge incontinence, feeling of incomplete emptying, bowel movements. Questionnaires have been administered, anonymously and blended, to children (age 10-18 years) and to parents of children aged 5-18 years presenting for LUTS (cases) or attending paediatric/urological clinics for reasons different that LUTS (controls); post-operative controls and uncontrolled insulin-dependent-diabetes being excluded.A Case-Report-Form comprehended history, urinalysis, bladder diary, flowmetry/PVR and a final clinician's judgment. Acceptability of ICIQ-CLUTS children and ICIQ-CLUTS parents were evaluated as percentage of missing items. ICIQ-CLUTS children and ICIQ-CLUTS parents scores were matched to clinician's judgement (taken as gold standard) in order to produce sensitivity and specificity (confidence interval 5-10%; level of confidence 95%). Results A total of 345 questionnaires were completed (267 by children and parents, 75 by parents and 3 by children). Final clinician's judgement identified 197 children as LUTS+ and the remaining 148 as LUTS-. Low percentage of missing items confirmed acceptability of ICIQ-CLUTS children (average missing items:1.7%) and ICIQ-CLUTSparents (average missing items:2.0).Sensitivity and specificity were, respectively,85% and 81% for ICIQ-CLUTS children and 87% and 70% for ICIQ-CLUTS parents. Conclusions Data analysis confirms ICIQ-CLUTS as valid and easy tool to screen LUTS in general paediatric population. ICIQ-CLUTS might be used to reconfigurate prevalence of LUTS in children, which was previously evaluated without validated instruments.

Urinary incontinence following Posterior Urethral Valves (PUV) ablation has been attributed in the past to sphincter injury, but it is nowadays accepted that bladder dysfunction (BD) plays a determinant role. In order to assess BD evolution, we have evaluated, from 1982 to 1994, 48 boys with PUV by urodynamics (UD) studies. Age of the patients ranged from 10 months to 15 years. A total of 65 examinations were performed. We considered four groups: 0-3 years; 4-7 years; 8-12 years and > 12 years. Uninhibited detrusor contractions (instability), end filling pressure (EFP), bladder capacity and voiding detrusor pressure were evaluated in order to assess the presence of BD distinguishing it in: hypercontractility, hypocontractility and low-compliant bladder. The results collected confirm a high percentage of BD in PUV boys (71%) and the evolution of hypercontractility versus hypocontractility in 60% of patients considered.