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Iodine supplementation during pregnancy in areas with mild-moderate deficiency is still a matter of debate. The present study aimed at systematically reviewing currently available evidences provided by meta-analyses with the aim to further clarify controversial aspects regarding the need of iodine supplementation in pregnancy as well as to provide guidance on clinical decision-making, even in areas with mild-moderate deficiency. Medline, Embase and Cochrane search from 1969 to 2022 were performed. For the purpose of this review, only studies containing meta-analytic data were selected. A total of 7 meta-analyses were retrieved. Four meta-analyses evaluated the relationship between iodine status during pregnancy and neonatal and maternal outcomes suggesting the existence of a U-shaped correlation between iodine status and several maternal and neonatal consequences, especially if iodine status is evaluated at the beginning of pregnancy. Three meta-analyses evaluating the results of intervention trials failed to provide straightforward conclusions on the benefits of iodine supplementation in pregnant women in areas with mild-moderate iodine deficiency. Although evidence coming from meta-analyses suggests a role of iodine status during pregnancy in determining maternal and child outcomes, results of meta-analyses of intervention trials are still controversial. Several factors including, degree of iodine deficiency, and pooling studies conducted in areas with different iodine intake, may account for the lack of benefits reported by meta-analyses of intervention trials. More high-quality, randomized, controlled trials including information on timing, dose and regimen of iodine supplementation are needed to further elucidate this issue.

Graves' orbitopathy (GO) is an orbital autoimmune disorder and the main extrathyroidal manifestation of Graves' disease, the most common cause of hyperthyroidism. GO affects about 30% of Graves' patients, although fewer than 10% have severe forms requiring immunosuppressive treatments. Management of GO requires a multidisciplinary approach. Medical therapies for active moderate-to-severe forms of GO (traditionally, high-dose glucocorticoids) often provide unsatisfactory results, and subsequently surgeries are often needed to cure residual manifestations. The aim of this review is to provide an updated overview of current concepts regarding the epidemiology, pathogenesis, assessment, and treatment of GO, and to present emerging targeted therapies and therapeutic perspectives. Original articles, clinical trials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses from 1980 to 2021 were searched using the following terms: Graves' disease, Graves' orbitopathy, thyroid eye disease, glucocorticoids, orbital radiotherapy, rituximab, cyclosporine, azathioprine, teprotumumab, TSH-receptor antibody, smoking, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, thyroidectomy, radioactive iodine, and antithyroid drugs. Recent studies suggest a secular trend toward a milder phenotype of GO. Standardized assessment at a thyroid eye clinic allows for a better general management plan. Treatment of active moderate-to-severe forms of GO still relies in most cases on high-dose systemic-mainly intravenous-glucocorticoids as monotherapy or in combination with other therapies-such as mycophenolate, cyclosporine, azathioprine, or orbital radiotherapy-but novel biological agents-including teprotumumab, rituximab, and tocilizumab-have achieved encouraging results.

BackgroundGraves’ orbitopathy (GO) is subject to epidemiological and care-related changes. Aim of the survey was to identify trends in presentation of GO to the European Group On Graves’ Orbitopathy (EUGOGO) tertiary referral centres and initial management over time.MethodsProspective observational multicentre study. All new referrals with diagnosis of GO within September–December 2019 were included. Clinical and demographic characteristics, referral timelines and initial therapeutic decisions were recorded. Data were compared with a similar EUGOGO survey performed in 2012.ResultsBesides age (mean age: 50.5±13 years vs 47.7±14 years; p 0.007), demographic characteristics of 432 patients studied in 2019 were similar to those in 2012. In 2019, there was a decrease of severe cases (9.8% vs 14.9; pConclusionGO patients are referred to tertiary EUGOGO centres in a less severe stage of the disease than before. We speculate that this might be linked to a broader awareness of the disease and faster and adequate delivered treatment.

Extra-pituitary ACTH secretion is associated with a variety of neoplastic conditions and may cause the so-called ectopic ACTH-dependent Cushing syndrome (CS). The clarification of the mechanisms of extra-pituitary ACTH expression would provide potential therapeutic targets for this complex and severe disease. In the adenohypophysis, the transcription factor TPIT, co-operating with other molecules, induces POMC expression and ACTH production. However, no data is currently available on the presence and role of TPIT expression in extra-pituitary ACTH-producing neoplasms. This study was designed to explore TPIT expression in a series of pulmonary and pancreatic ACTH-producing tumors, either CS-associated or not. 41 extra-pituitary ACTH-producing neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) were included in the study, encompassing 32 NETs of the lung (LuNETs), 7 of the pancreas (PanNETs) and 2 pheochromocytomas. Of these, 9 LuNETs, all PanNETs and the two pheochromocytomas were CS-associated. For comparison, 6 NETs the pituitary gland (PitNETs), and 35 ACTH-negative NETs (15 Lu-NETs and 20 PanNETs) were analyzed. Immunohistochemistry with specific anti-TPIT antibodies and quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) were performed using standard protocols. TPIT expression was completely absent (protein and mRNA) in PanNETs, pheochromocytomas, and all ACTH-negative NETs. In contrast, it was expressed in 16/32 LuNETs, although with lower levels than in PitNETs. No definite relationship was found between immunohistochemistry TPIT expression and NET grade or the presence of Cushing syndrome. This study further highlights the clinical and biological heterogeneity of extrapituitary ACTH secretion and suggests that the differences between ACTH-secreting PanNETs and LuNETs may mirror distinct molecular mechanisms underlying POMC expression. Our results point towards the recognition of a real corticotroph-like phenotype of ACTH-producing LuNETs, that is not a feature of ACTH-producing PanNETs.

Purpose Current treatment of acromegaly restores a normal life expectancy in most cases. So, the study of persistent complications affecting patients’ quality of life (QoL) is of paramount importance, especially motor disability and depression. In a large cohort of acromegalic patients we aimed at establishing the prevalence of depression, to look for clinical and sociodemographic factors associated with it, and to investigate the respective roles (and interactions) of depression and arthropathy in influencing QoL. Methods One hundred and seventy-one acromegalic patients (95 women and 76 men, aged 20–85 years) among those recruited in a cross-sectional Italian multicentric study were investigated. Each patient filled in three validated questionnaires: AcroQoL, WOMAC (measuring articular pain, stiffness and functionality), and AIMS (evaluating articular symptoms and depression). Results A very high (up to 28%) depression rate was detected in acromegalic subjects. Two patients showing pathological AIMS depression scores, committed suicide during the three years observational period. In our population poor psychological status was significantly associated with female sex. Furthermore, a significant strong correlation was found between AIMS depression score and WOMAC score. Both depression and arthropathy-related motor disability turned out to independently contribute with similar strength to the impairment of QoL. Conclusions We report a high prevalence of depression in acromegaly, which is associated with female sex and arthropathy. Both depression and arthropathy strongly and independently contribute to the impaired QoL of patients. Our study shows that assessment and monitoring of psychological status is mandatory in acromegaly, also suggesting an inexpensive tool for this assessment.

Purpose According to a few recent studies, the clinical phenotype of Graves’ disease (GD) at onset is becoming milder in recent years, in terms of prevalence and severity of hyperthyroidism, goiter and overt eye disease. The aim of this study was to assess the change in GD phenotype across the late twentieth and the early twenty-first centuries. Materials and methods We carried out a systematic search of studies published between 1/1/1980 and 12/31/2017 describing naïve GD patients at diagnosis. We collected epidemiological, clinical, biochemical and serological data reported in the selected studies, and (1) conducted a single-arm meta-analysis to compare clinical and biochemical characteristics of naïve GD patients before and after year 2000 and (2) performed a meta-regression to identify the trend of the observed clinical presentations. Results Eighty selected articles were related to the period before the year 2000, 30 to the years 2000–2017. According to demographics, the two defined populations were homogeneous at meta-analysis: overall estimated female prevalence was 81% [95% CI 79–82], mean estimated age of the entire population was 39.8 years [95% CI 38.4–41.1], with no significant differences between pre- and post-2000 groups (p > 0.05). The overall estimated prevalence of smokers was 40% [95% CI 33–46], with no significant difference between the two groups (p > 0.05). Mean estimated free thyroxine (FT4) and free triiodothyronine (FT3) levels at diagnosis were higher in the pre-2000 group: 4.7 ng/dl [95% CI 4.5–4.9] for FT4 and 14.2 pg/ml [95% CI 13.3–15.1] for FT3, as compared to the post-2000 group: 3.9 ng/dl [95% CI 3.6–4.2] for FT4 and 12.1 pg/ml [95% CI 11.0–13.3] for FT3 (all p p = 0.03). Accordingly, meta-regression adjusted for covariates showed an average annual reduction of FT4 (− 0.040 ± 0.008 ng/dl, p p p = 0.006), and goiter size (− 0.560 ± 0.031 ml, p Conclusions Our meta-analysis and meta-regression confirmed that GD phenotype at diagnosis is nowadays milder than in the past; we hypothesize that conceivable factors involved in this change are iodoprophylaxis, worldwide decrease in smoking habits, larger use of contraceptive pill and micronutrient supplementation, as well as earlier diagnosis and management.

Graves' disease (GD) is an autoimmune disorder due to loss of tolerance to the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) and ultimately caused by stimulatory TSHR antibodies (TSHR-Ab). GD may be associated with extrathyroidal manifestations, mainly Graves' orbitopathy. Treatment of GD relies on antithyroid drugs (ATDs), radioactive iodine (RAI), thyroidectomy. The major ATD limitation is the high recurrence rate after treatment. The major drawback of RAI and thyroidectomy is the inevitable development of permanent hypothyroidism.Original articles, clinical trials, systematic reviews, meta-analyses from 1980 to 2021 were searched using the following terms: Graves' disease, management of Graves' disease, antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine, thyroidectomy, Graves' orbitopathy, thyroid-eye disease.ATDs are the first-line treatment worldwide, are overall safe and usually given for 18-24 months, long-term treatment may decrease relapses. RAI is safe, although associated with a low risk of GO progression, particularly in smokers. Thyroidectomy requires skilled and high-volume surgeons. Patients play a central role in the choice of treatment within a shared decision-making process. Results from targeted therapies acting on different steps of the autoimmune process, including iscalimab, ATX-GD-59, rituximab, blocking TSHR-Ab, small molecules acting as antagonists of the TSHR, are preliminary or preclinical, but promising in medium-to-long perspective.

Hypertension is a frequent finding in elderly patients. Hypertension in older age can be both associated with frailty and represent a risk factor for frailty. Hypertension is recognized as a main risk factor for cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke and the occurrence of these diseases may provoke a decline in health status and/or worsen the degree of frailty. Blood pressure targets in hypertensive older and frail patients are not completely defined. However, specific evaluations of individual patients and their co-morbidities and assessment of domains and components of frailty, together with weighted consideration of drug use, may help in finding the appropriate therapy.

Context Patients with amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (AIT) and severely reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) have a high mortality rate that may be reduced by total thyroidectomy. Whether in this subset of patients thyroidectomy should be performed early during thyrotoxicosis or later after restoration of euthyroidism has not yet been settled. Objectives Mortality rates, including peritreatment mortality and 5-year cardiovascular mortality, and predictors of death, evaluated by Cox regression analysis. Methods Retrospective cohort study of 64 consecutive patients with AIT selected for total thyroidectomy from 1997 to 2019. Four groups of patients were identified according to serum thyroid hormone concentrations and LVEF: Group 1 (thyrotoxic, LVEF Results Among patients with low LVEF (Groups 1 and 3), mortality was higher in patients undergoing thyroidectomy after restoration of euthyroidism (Group 3) than in those submitted to surgery when still thyrotoxic (Group 1): peritreatment mortality rates were 40% versus 0%, respectively (P = .048), whereas 5-year cardiovascular mortality rates were 53.3% versus 12.3%, respectively (P = .081). Exposure to thyrotoxicosis was longer in Group 3 than in Group 1 (112 days, interquartile range [IQR] 82.5-140, vs 76 days, IQR 24.8-88.5, P = .021). Survival did not differ in patients with LVEF ≥40% submitted to thyroidectomy irrespective of being thyrotoxic (Group 2) or euthyroid (Group 4): in this setting, peritreatment mortality rates were 6.3% versus 4% (P = .741) and 5-year cardiovascular mortality rates were 12.5% and 20% (P = .685), respectively. Age (hazard ratio [HR] 1.104, P = .029) and duration of exposure to thyrotoxicosis (HR 1.004, P = .039), but not presurgical serum thyroid hormone concentrations (P = .577 for free thyroxine, P = .217 for free triiodothyronine), were independent predictors of death. Conclusions A prolonged exposure to thyrotoxicosis resulted in increased mortality in patients with reduced LVEF, which may be reduced by early thyroidectomy.

Summary Brown tumors are osteoclastic, benign lesions characterized by fibrotic stroma, intense vascularization and multinucleated giant cells. They are the terminal expression of the bone remodelling process occurring in advanced hyperparathyroidism. Nowadays, due to earlier diagnosis, primary hyperparathyroidism keeps few of the classical manifestations and brown tumors are definitely unexpected. Thus, it may happen that they are misdiagnosed as primary or metastatic bone cancer. Besides bone imaging, endocrine evaluation including measurement of serum parathyroid hormone and calcium (Ca) levels supports the pathologist to address the diagnosis. Herein, a case of multiple large brown tumors misdiagnosed as a non-treatable osteosarcoma is described, with special regards to diagnostic work-up. After selective parathyroidectomy, treatment with denosumab was initiated and a regular follow-up was established. The central role of multidisciplinary approach involving pathologist, endocrinologist and oncologist in the diagnostic and therapeutic work-up is reported. In our opinion, the discussion of this case would be functional especially for clinicians and pathologists not used to the differential diagnosis in uncommon bone disorders. Learning points: Brown tumors develop during the remodelling process of bone in advanced and long-lasting primary or secondary hyperparathyroidism. Although rare, they should be considered during the challenging diagnostic work-up of giant cell lesions. Coexistence of high parathyroid hormone levels and hypercalcemia in primary hyperparathyroidism is crucial for the diagnosis. A detailed imaging study includes bone X-ray, bone scintiscan and total body CT; to rule out bone malignancy, evaluation of bone lesion biopsy should include immunostaining for neoplastic markers as H3G34W and Ki67 index. If primary hyperparathyroidism is confirmed, selective parathyroidectomy is the first-line treatment. In advanced bone disease, treatment with denosumab should be considered, ensuring a strict control of Ca levels.

The main role of vitamin D is to control mineral homeostasis. However, recent studies suggested the existence of a number of extraskeletal effects. Among the latter, preclinical studies provided consistent data on the involvement of vitamin D in innate and adaptive immunity and autoimmunity. Molecular biology studies showed that both vitamin D receptor and vitamin D enzymatic complexes are expressed in a large number of cells and tissues unrelated to mineral homeostasis. In contrast, only a few randomized clinical trials in humans investigated the possible role of vitamin D in the prevention or treatment of immunological disorders. In this regard, low serum vitamin D levels have been reported in observational trials in human autoimmune disorders. The aim of the present paper was to review the potential implications of vitamin D in immune modulation, with special focus on thyroid autoimmune disorders.

Introduction: Intrathoracic goiters are associated with compression of nearby structures, triggering severe compressive symptoms. Total thyroidectomy is the gold standard to treat these cases. Case Presentation: A patient with a huge intrathoracic goiter suffering from compressive symptoms underwent a thorough clinical, functional and imaging assessment and underwent total thyroidectomy in an Endocrino-Metabolic surgical referral center; after the surgery she suffered from transient hypocalcaemia but was discharged without major complications and continued periodical endocrinological follow-up. Conclusion: Management of intra-thoracic goiter requires a multidisciplinary approach of a skilled team both pre, during and after surgery to maximize the safety and efficacy of the procedure and reduce or promptly manage surgical or medical complications.

Whether differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) occurring concomitantly with Graves’ disease (GD) is more aggressive and bound to a less favorable outcome is controversial. Aim of this multicenter retrospective study was to compare baseline features and outcome of DTC patients with GD (DTC/GD+) or without GD (DTC/GD−). Enrolled in this study were 579 patients referred to five endocrine units (Cagliari, Pavia, Pisa, Siena, and Varese) between 2005 and 2014: 193 patients had DTC/GD+ , 386 DTC/GD−. Patients were matched for age, gender and tumor size. They underwent surgery because of malignancy, large goiter size, or relapse of hyperthyroidism in GD. Baseline DTC features (histology, lymph node metastases, extrathyroidal extension) did not differ in the two groups, except for multifocality which was significantly more frequent in DTC/GD+ (27.5% vs. 7.5%, p

Graves’ orbitopathy (GO) is the main extrathyroidal manifestation of Graves’ disease (GD). Choice of treatment should be based on the assessment of clinical activity and severity of GO. Early referral to specialized centers is fundamental for most patients with GO. Risk factors include smoking, thyroid dysfunction, high serum level of thyrotropin receptor antibodies, radioactive iodine (RAI) treatment, and hypercholesterolemia. In mild and active GO, control of risk factors, local treatments, and selenium (selenium-deficient areas) are usually sufficient; if RAI treatment is selected to manage GD, low-dose oral prednisone prophylaxis is needed, especially if risk factors coexist. For both active moderate-to-severe and sight-threatening GO, antithyroid drugs are preferred when managing Graves’ hyperthyroidism. In moderate-to-severe and active GO i.v. glucocorticoids are more effective and better tolerated than oral glucocorticoids. Based on current evidence and efficacy/safety profile, costs and reimbursement, drug availability, long-term effectiveness, and patient choice after extensive counseling, a combination of i.v. methylprednisolone and mycophenolate sodium is recommended as first-line treatment. A cumulative dose of 4.5 g of i.v. methylprednisolone in 12 weekly infusions is the optimal regimen. Alternatively, higher cumulative doses not exceeding 8 g can be used as monotherapy in most severe cases and constant/inconstant diplopia. Second-line treatments for moderate-to-severe and active GO include (a) the second course of i.v. methylprednisolone (7.5 g) subsequent to careful ophthalmic and biochemical evaluation, (b) oral prednisone/prednisolone combined with either cyclosporine or azathioprine; (c) orbital radiotherapy combined with oral or i.v. glucocorticoids, (d) teprotumumab; (e) rituximab and (f) tocilizumab. Sight-threatening GO is treated with several high single doses of i.v. methylprednisolone per week and, if unresponsive, with urgent orbital decompression. Rehabilitative surgery (orbital decompression, squint, and eyelid surgery) is indicated for inactive residual GO manifestations.

Objective We compared demographic and clinic-pathological variables related to the number of surgeries for thyroid conditions or for cancer, morbidity, and fine needle aspiration (FNA) practices among Covid19 pandemic phases I, II, III and the same seasonal periods in 2019. Methods The prospective database of the Division of Thyroid Surgery, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China was used for this study. Covid19 emergency levels were stratified according to the World Health Organization: phase I (January 25–February 25, 2020), phase II (February 26–March 19), phase III (March 20–April 20). Results There were fewer outpatient FNAs and surgeries in 2020 than in 2019. There were no thyroid surgeries during phase I. There were also fewer surgeries for cancer with a significant reduction of advanced stage cancer treatments, mainly stage T1b N1a in phase II and T3bN1b in phase III. Operative times and postoperative stays were significantly shorter during the pandemic compared to our institutional baseline. In phase III, vocal cord paralysis (VCP) increased to 4.3% of our baseline numbers (P = 0.001). There were no cases of Covid19-related complications during the perioperative period. No patients required re-admission to the hospital. Conclusion The Covid19 outbreak reduced thyroid surgery patient volumes. The decrease of Covid19 emergency plans contributed to unexpected outcomes (reduction of early stage cancer treatment, decreased operative times and hospital stays, increased VCP rate). Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s40618-020-01407-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.