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Non-compliance with fishing regulations is a widespread phenomenon in fisheries worldwide, jeopardizing the recovery of stocks and ecosystem services. There is an urgent need to fill the gaps in our understanding of the scale and nature of illegal fishing in artisanal fisheries, balancing the advances made in industrial fisheries. We explored patterns of fisher compliance with the existing minimum legal size (MLS) regulation in the small-scale benthic fisheries of central Chile. We focus on two of the most conspicuous species (loco Concholepas concholepas and keyhole limpets Fissurella spp.) and comparing two management regimes: management areas (MAs; local name for territorial use rights for fisheries) and open access areas (OAAs; no spatial entry restrictions). We also evaluated the effect of the spatial distribution of MAs, which determines the availability of OAAs on compliance. For both species, we measured the size of individuals in the catch in two consecutive years. We developed an index that accounts for the availability of open access areas per fisher. We found that a) the number of undersized individuals in the catch in OAAs is enormous, b) management regime influences both the median size and fraction of the undersized catch, and c) as the availability of OAAs per fisher decreases, illegal fishing increases, demonstrating the need to manage the levels of effort displacement in designing area-based instruments for management and conservation. Our findings also highlight the need to a) analyze the benefits of area-based instruments at the seascape scale, and b) develop and adapt instruments to prevent illegal fishing.

Plant–herbivore interactions are critical for the functioning of ecosystems, particularly when habitat-forming species are involved. Kelp forests are among the most diverse and productive ecosystems in the world and, along the Chilean coast, they have a high economic importance. Lessonia trabeculata constitutes the main component of the subtidal shallow habitats in Chile. We quantified the consumption of kelp tissues by the snail Tegula tridentata (one of the most important grazers in Chilean kelp habitats), and the modification in this consumption by a guild of epibiotic hydroids growing on kelps. We performed two different sets of experiments with and without the possibility for the snails to select between kelps with hydroids and kelps without them. The consumption by T. tridentata on kelps without hydroids was between 3 and 4 times higher than on kelps with hydroids. Kelp is protected from herbivores by hydroids and can gain nitrogen during low concentration periods of this nutrient in water. Hydroids gain a substratum, and an elevated position above the seafloor where particle capture is facilitated by the effect of kelp in water currents. Predictions using densities of T. tridentate observed in different forests of L. trabeculata along Chilean coasts, show that herbivory pressure can drastically change depending on this density; in forests with high densities, the presence/absence of hydroids could be crucial. Hydroids have shown to be ubiquitous components of the fauna inhabiting the kelp holdfast and forming a rich community in comparison with other epibionts. Despite its low overall biomass, hydroids can be key elements in kelp productivity (affecting, therefore, the community associated to kelps). The kelp-hydroid mutualistic relationship can change the interactions kelp-herbivore., SI

9 pages, 4 figures, 1 table, supplementary data https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.09.034, It is crucial that societies are informed on the risks of impoverished ecosystem health for their well-being. For this purpose, Ecological Integrity (EI) is a useful concept that seeks to capture the complex nature of ecosystems and their interaction with social welfare. But the challenge remains to measure EI and translate scientific terminology into operational language to inform society. We propose an approach that simplifies marine ecosystem complexity by applying scientific knowledge to identify which components reflect the state or state change of ecosystems. It follows a bottom-up structure that identifies, based on expert knowledge, biological components related with past and present changing conditions. It is structured in 5 stages that interact in an adaptive way: stage 1, in situ observations suggest changes could be happening; stage 2 explores available data that represent EI; stage 3, experts' workshops target the identification of the minimum set of variables needed to define EI, or the risk of losing EI; an optative stage 4, where deviance from EI, or risk of deviance, is statistically assessed; stage 5, findings are communicated to society. We demonstrate the framework effectiveness in three case studies, including a data poor situation, an area where lack of reference sites hampers the identification of historical changes, and an area where diffuse sources of stress make it difficult to identify simple relationships with of ecological responses. The future challenge is to operationalise the approach and trigger desirable society actions to strengthen a social-nature link, Funding for JH was provided by NIWA Coasts and Oceans Centre (MBIE CORE). SdJ was funded by H2020-Marie Skłodowska-Curie Action MSCA-IF-2016 [Project ID: 743545]. MDS was funded by FONDECYT 1130580 grant and ICM grant CCM – RC130004 from Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo (Chilean Government)

Many artisanal fisheries lack of conventional scientific data for stock assessment and decision making, which might explain the overexploitation and collapse of many small-scale fish stocks. Fishers' perception has a great potential to be an alternative source of information as it is present in every fishery, is inexpensive and allows analysis at large spatial scales. However, fishers' perception is influenced by psychological factors that can generate bias. This study compares fishers' perception and direct assessment of current and historical abundances of two benthic species that are targeted in the artisanal fishery of Central Chile (the loco and the keyhole limpet), in order to assess the value of the method for artisanal fisheries. The analysis also considered different management regimes (open access areas and areas with territorial rights) and two periods of time (approximately 15 years apart) to determine the (a) the consistency of fishers' perception for assessment of current abundance and (b) the potential use for retrospective assessment. We also compared official landing reports with direct assessments in order to assess the reliability of fisheries data. Fishers' perception of loco abundance generally agreed with direct assessment in fishing villages, management regimes and periods of time. In the case of the keyhole limpet, fishers perceived abundances higher than those registered in direct assessments. The different patterns observed between resources can be related to the relative importance of each fishery. Fishers were not accurate in recalling past abundances retrospectively and official reports showed dramatic mismatches with direct assessment in catch abundance and composition. Fishers' perception is a potential source of information to assess the current abundance of targeted species. However, it requires case by case investigation and evaluation before it can be applied and the information properly integrated in fisheries management practices.

12 pages, 5 figures, 1 table, We assessed the gaps between current and “model mapping routines”, which represent a benchmark for mapping marine ecosystem services (ESs). Model mapping routines comprised 17 selected variables and their best-rated alternatives depending on the mapping purpose, namely, marine spatial planning, environmental impact assessment, vulnerability and risk analysis, marine protected areas management, payments for ecosystem services, and natural resources management. We conducted a systematic search of articles (n = 64) from which information on the 17 variables and their alternatives was retrieved. We assessed gaps using similarity matrices, according to the co-occurrence index. The largest gaps (as measured by average distances >0.5 between actual and best options) occurred in articles reporting natural resources management as purpose, whereas the smallest were related to marine protected areas management and payments for ecosystem services. The gaps were due to departures in different individual variables. For example, in the case of marine spatial planning the omission of tradeoffs, scenario analysis, multiple scales, and threshold analyses explained the gap, whereas in vulnerability and risk assessment the omission of thresholds, the lack of consistency of the indicators used, and the absence of a definition of ESs explained the gap. We trust that this study will help to recognize that ESs mapping studies should be guided by the purpose of a given intervention rather than by the technical capacities and disciplines of the researchers, if the ESs approach expects to reach a real impact into public policies, LN, G.C, X.V and F.B were funded by CONICYT Chile through FONDAP Grant 15150003; MDS was funded by Fondecyt 1130580. MDS and MF received funding from Fondecyt 1171603 grants and ICM grant CCM – RC130004 from Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo (Chilean Government). SV acknowledges the financial support of the European COST Action “Ocean Governance for Sustainability - challenges, options and the role of science”, the ICES Science Fund Project “Social Transformations of Marine Social-Ecological Systems”, and the CYTED program for the ECOMAR Network

Tegula tridentata, is a common herbivore gastropod inhabiting the subtidal Lessonia trabeculata kelp forest, which tends to show higher densities after kelp harvesting. We investigated if harvested kelp beds may harbor higher densities of herbivore invertebrates, and the underlying mechanisms. Thus, we evaluated if the exudates of L. trabeculata change the seawater levels of soluble phenols, known to have a deterrent effect against the feeding behavior of some herbivore invertebrates. Finally we investigated whether the increase in T. tridentata densities in harvested kelp grounds could be related to a decrease in the seawater levels of soluble phenols. Our results showed that the density of invertebrate herbivores increased up to 32% in harvested kelp grounds. We provide the first estimate of the rate of phenolic exudation by L. trabeculata, and we demonstrate that T. tridentata changes its food dependent movement in the presence of exudates with synthetic phloroglucinol. We suggest that the recovery of harvested kelp ecosystems can be jeopardized by increased herbivory triggered by water-borne changes in the levels of herbivore deterrent compounds.

There is an urgent need to quantify the impacts of artisanal fisheries and define management practices that allow for the recovery and conservation of exploited stocks. The extent of illegal catch is particularly critical as a driver of overexploitation in artisanal fisheries. However, the lack of data at proper spatial scales limits the evaluation of illegal fishing and effectiveness of management practices. We used a catch curve analysis to estimate total instantaneous mortality as a proxy of fishing pressure in the artisanal benthic fishery in central Chile. We compared the patterns of total mortality in fishing grounds under the well-studied territorial use rights for fisheries system (TURF) immersed in a landscape of open access areas (OAA; no access restriction), and from these patterns determined the extent of illegal fishing in open access areas focusing on the two most frequently extracted resources: locos (Concholepas concholepas) and keyhole limpets (Fissurella spp.). The beauty of this seascape is the presence of the no-take (NT) area of Las Cruces as control (no fishing), allowing us to estimate natural mortality. Loco exploitation is banned in OAAs. However, loco mortality in OAAs was 92% higher than in the NT, and 42% higher than in TURFs. Keyhole limpet mortality was similar between TURFs and the NT, but doubled in OAAs. We also found strong differences in mortality among fishing grounds with the same level of protection (i.e. TURFs), and over time. Our results highlight (a) the high level of illegal fishing that may occur in artisanal fisheries under traditional management regimes, and (b) that TURFs can be effective to reduce fishing mortality. However, large variability among TURFs suggests the need for a deeper understanding of the drivers of success of TURFs.

11 pages, 7 figures, 4 tables, supplementary data https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.01.054, The assessment of the status of marine ecosystems is still a major challenge, because in general we lack well-established ecosystem-based monitoring programs. The coast of central Chile is subjected to moderate but historic fishing pressure by small-scale fisheries. In spite of the increasing evidences of the impact of fishing beyond target species, there is a lack of systematic ecosystem-based assessments. We focused on this problem with the goal of identifying community components, based on a Biological Traits Analysis, that respond to fishing activities to ultimately define ecosystem health. We sampled a set of study sites subjected to benthic invertebrate gathering, and more recently to kelp harvesting. Sites included paired fishery restricted and open access areas where mobile invertebrates and sessile benthos were surveyed. In addition, kelp density and size structure were assessed in two sites subjected to kelp harvesting (also pairing restricted and open access areas). Target species exhibited higher densities in fishery-restricted areas. Fisheries restricted-areas also showed overall higher richness and redundancy of biological traits. Otherwise, we observed high variability in the structure of sessile benthos linked to small-scale heterogeneity of the seabed. The areas subjected to kelp harvesting exhibited variability in mobile invertebrates’ composition between fishing access regimes, whereas no effects could be detected by only considering target species. Current monitoring efforts seem to be well-suited to address target species but fail to inform on ecosystem health in an area with increasing signs of community-wide effects from fishing. Therefore, we recommend future monitoring schemes targeting community components, beyond commercial species’ densities, at different scales, This work was funded by ICM grant CCM – RC130004 from Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo (Chilean Government) to MF and SdJ and Fondecyt 1130580 to MDS. SG thanks funding Conicyt Basal 0002

Normal 0 21 false false false ES-CL JA X-NONE /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Tabla normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:Calibri; mso-ansi-language:ES-CL; mso-fareast-language:ES-CL;} The biological and ecological benefits of fully and partially marine protected areas are well documented. However, the benefits reaching areas beyond the limits of the reserves are still emerging in spite the fact that they are essential for fishing grounds recovery and to gain support for the protection of the ocean among stakeholders. We analyzed the influence of protection on gonadosomatic index, and also body dry weight, of two economically and ecologically important species: the keyhole limpet, Fissurella latimarginata and the red sea urchin, Loxechinus albus , in order to determine the value of protected areas in directly enhancing reproduction, and therefore potential seeding on exploited areas. We compared two levels of protection in central Chile, determined by fisheries management regimes (in turn associated to fishing pressure): a) areas with fishing restrictions (low or none fishing effort; territorial use rights for fisheries and no-take areas) and b) open access areas (high exploitation rates). We also evaluated the independent influence of upwelling on both variables. Our results show for both species that a) body dry weight is not affected by management regime, b) management regime did not show a consistent impact on gonadosomatic index and c) upwelling did not affect the response variables. Our findings help disentangling the main factors determining reproductive patterns under contrasting human impact scenarios, suggesting that the selection of sites for establishing marine protected areas seems to be less relevant than efficient control of fishing effort and minimum legal size to assure natural seeding.

The successful settlement of the African pea crab Afropinnotheres monodi in the Bay of Cadiz was analysed to gain new insights into the evolution of pea crab parasite life history traits. The pea crab lives symbiotically and with high prevalence in the bivalves Cerastoderma glaucum and Mytilus galloprovincialis, and with low prevalence in Scrobicularia plana. A remarkable monopolisation of the host (1 crab per bivalve) occurred irrespective of host species and crab demographic categories (males, hard females, soft females), probably as an optimisation of resources in small hosts. However, there was a clear asymmetry in host use by the different crab categories. A 1:1 sex ratio was found in crabs harboured by C. glaucum and S. plana, with most of the female crabs being small and hard specimens, whereas crabs inhabiting M. galloprovincialis were primarily large reproductive females. Ovigerous females were found throughout the year in M. galloprovincialis, and there was a strong correlation between female size and fecundity, suggesting that the females harboured by this host were the major contributors to the reproductive effort of the studied population. Conversely, most of the new crabs recruiting to the population were harboured by the remaining 2 host species. We hypothesise that such a generalist but asymmetrical usage of bivalve hosts by pea crabs may have clear benefits for species such as A. monodi, that are undergoing geographical expansion, facilitating their dispersal to new locations and their successful settlement in sheltered systems, such as the Bay of Cadiz. © Inter-Research 2014., This research work was funded by remnant funds of the PAI RNM108 research group.

14 páginas, 8 figuras., Estuaries are used as nursery grounds by numerous marine species despite being usually subject to strong anthropogenic disturbances. Abundances of marine recruits (fish and crustacean decapods) and their main prey (mysids) were monitored by monthly sampling, from June 1997 to February 2009, in the lower reaches of the Guadalquivir estuary (SW Spain). During that period, unusually high and persistent turbidity events (HPTEs) were observed twice. Both HPTEs started with strong and sudden freshwater discharges after relatively long periods of very low freshwater inflow. Data from this time-series were used to test the hypothesis that HPTEs may negatively impact the nursery function of estuaries either by decreasing prey availability or by decreasing survival/arrival of marine recruits. During HPTEs, the commonest mysid (Mesopodopsis slabberi), a key species in the estuarine food web, showed a significant decrease in abundance. Likewise, some marine recruits that prey on M. slabberi and whose peaks of abundance within the estuary occur in summer–autumn (Engraulis encrasicolus and Pomadasys incisus) were less abundant during HPTEs. It is also suggested that HPTEs might have triggered a shift in the distribution of the most euryhaline prey (Neomysis integer) and predator (Dicentrarchus punctatus and Crangon crangon) species, towards more saline waters. This could have contributed to an increase in the inter-specific competition (for food/habitat) within the estuarine nursery area. The results discussed in this study call attention to the need to reduce as much as possible the anthropogenic pressures that may stimulate the occurrence of high and persistent turbidity events (HPTEs) in order to preserve the nursery function of temperate estuaries., The study was supported by the Spanish MCYT projectREN2000-0822 MAR, the Environmental and Fishery Agency of Autonomous Andalusia Government (“Consejería de Medio Ambiente” and “Consejería de Agricultura y Pesca: Junta de Andalucía”) and EU Fishery Grant.

Trabajo presentado en el PRIMO 17 (Pollutant Responses in Marine Organisms), celebrado en Faro (Portugal) del 5 al 8 de mayo de 2013., Changes in the structure of benthic assemblages subject to gradients of sediment metal and organic contamination are usually assessed employing traditional univariate and multivariate analyses. However, artificial neural networks (ANNs) may be able to reveal different effects of pollution and spatiotemporal variations in environmental conditions. A 4-­year annual sediment survey was performed along the Sancti Petri tidal channel (Bay of Cadiz, SW Spain) in order to compare the performance of univariate community descriptors, traditional multivariate techniques and AANs in the assessment of infaunal responses to moderate levels of sediment metal contamination, in organically enriched environments. Despite the potential difficulty to separate natural from anthropogenic stress in the Sancti Petri channel, both traditional multivariate approaches and ANNs revealed spatiotemp oral patterns of environmental and biological variables that allowed suggesting a causal relationship between them, and highlighted subsets of taxa and sediment variables as potential main drivers of those patterns identified. For instance, high values of non-­natural metals and organic content prompted high abundances of opportunists, while high values of natural metals yielded typical tolerant assemblages of organically enriched areas. The SOM ANN, combined with the K-­means clustering algorithm, allowed reaching results identical to ones obtained with the traditional multivariate approach, but needing considerably less analytical and interpretational effort. Although this ANN approach may be a promising tool for the assessment of the ecological quality of estuarine infaunal communities, further work is needed to ensure the accuracy of the method., This work was supported by the Ministerio Ciencia Innovacion (SCARCE project, Consolider‐Ingenio, CSD2009-­00065).

The present study aimed to assess short-term effects of intertidal bait digging on macrobenthic assemblages of two south Iberian Atlantic coastal systems: the Ria Formosa (RF) lagoon and the Bay of Cádiz (BC). Within each system, two different areas were selected. In each area, six plots were randomly located at least 1m apart from each other. Half of the plots were left undisturbed (control) and the other three were dug (disturbed). Three macrobenthic core samples were taken from each plot, immediately before, one, four and seven days after digging. Samples for analyses of grain-size and organic matter content (OM) were also collected from the top 2cm sediment layers in each sampling period. The effects of bait digging were site specific and were related to sediment and biological composition of the areas before disturbance. Macrobenthic assemblages from the area with proportionally less mud content (RF1), which presented the greatest infaunal diversity and evenness values before disturbance, showed minor effects of digging and assemblages generally recovered within 7 days. On the other hand, the areas located in the Bay of Cádiz, which before disturbance presented the greatest mud content and macrobenthic assemblages dominated by only a few species, were the most affected and did not show signs of total recovery within 7 days after digging. The abundance of sedentary polychaetes from families Spionidae, Capitellidae and Cirratulidae decreased after digging. In contrast, in some areas the abundance of the gastropods Bittium spp., Haminoea hydatis and Retusa truncatula increased after bait digging indicating that they are less affected by this activity. Differences were detected in the response of benthic assemblages to the same intensity, frequency and nature of disturbance between and within coastal systems. Therefore, generalizations of the effects of bait digging and in the recovery of macrobenthic assemblages in the south of Iberian Peninsula are not possible. © 2011 ., S. Carvalho benefited from a post-doctoral grant awarded by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (SFRH/BPD/26986/2006).

The aim of this 12-year study was to assess the nekton (fish, decapod crustaceans) response to freshwater inputs (rainfall, dam discharges) in a temperate estuary with regulated riverine inflow. Although interannual variability in river discharges to the Guadalquivir estuary has been extremely high since the construction of a dam in 1930, a significant decreasing trend in the dam's discharges has been observed in the last 80. years. During this study, an alternation of wet, standard and dry years occurred in the estuarine area but no significant long-term trend was observed. River discharge, in turn, showed a considerable interannual variability and a significantly decreasing long-term trend. Freshwater inputs had an immediate effect on estuarine salinity and turbidity, and consequently on prey availability (mysids). Although 124 nektonic species were collected, only 47 of them (adding up to 99.7% of total abundance) were regularly present in the estuary: 32 marine migrants, 13 estuarine species and 2 diadromous species. Well-defined temporal changes in species composition and abundance yielded clear seasonal patterns in the estuarine nektonic community. Considerable intermonth and interannual changes were occasionally observed relating to freshwater inputs, mainly in winter/autumn of wet years. Thus, within each two-month period, some significant interannual differences in the nektonic community were also observed, with marine migrants tending to be more abundant in dry years. However, changes in the studied nektonic community did not show long-term trends. In conclusion, natural and human-controlled freshwater inputs currently play a significant role in determining the physicochemical conditions and the biota of the Guadalquivir estuary. However, although freshwater input seemed to transitorily affect the estuarine nekton, either directly (flushing out) or indirectly (through changes in salinity, turbidity and prey availability), a quick reestablishment of the estuarine nekton (strong resilience) was observed following freshwater inputs together with the recovery of environmental conditions within the estuary. © 2012 Elsevier B.V., This study was co-funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, through the projects REN2000-0822 MAR and SCARCE (Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065), the Environmental and Fishery Agency of Autonomous Andalusia Government and the EU Fishery Grant.

3 páginas, 2 figuras, 1 tabla., Heretofore, the pinnotherid crab, Afropinnotheres monodi, had been recorded only from African waters. The range is now extended into European waters with discovery of material in the Gulf of Cádiz. Furthermore, early collections of material had occurred only in open water; now three hosts can be assigned, the clams Scrobicularia plana, Ruditapes decussatus and Cerastoderma glaucum. Further discoveries of this pinnotherid may now be expected, especially along the coast of Portugal., For financial support we want to thank Junta de Andalucía PAIDI (Plan Andaluz de Investigacion Desarrollo e Innovacion), for funding to groups RNM 108 and RNM 141.

Moderate contamination is a challenging scenario for ecotoxicologists because of the occurrence of subtle biomarker responses and the increased relevance of non-contamination related variables. This investigative biomonitoring study was performed in a moderately contaminated coastal system (Óbidos lagoon, Portugal) to examine winter-summer variations on biochemical responses and accumulated metals in Carcinus maenas, searching for associations with environmental and biological factors. Males and females were collected in three sites: Barrosa (BB) and Bom-Sucesso (BS) in upper lagoon, and the middle lagoon (ML), closer to the lagoon inlet. Water and sediment were monitored for metals (Cu, Mn, Ni, Cr, Cd). Catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione S-transferase (GST), total glutathione content (GSHt), lipid peroxidation (LPO), and ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD), as well as Cu, Mn, Ni, Cr and Cd were measured in the crabs' hepatopancreas. Inter-site differences, though infrequent, pointed to the presence of crab stressors at BB. This was particularly obvious in summer when higher GST as well as lower GSHt and EROD were found in females, and accompanied by higher Ni accumulation. Seasonal differences of biochemical responses superimposed spatial variations in line with the contrasting winter-summer conditions regarding water quality and, to a lesser extent, with metal bioaccumulation. CAT, GSHt, and LPO were higher in summer, whereas enhancements of GPx and GST were recorded in winter. Winter increases were in agreement with higher availability of metals in water and enhancement of accumulated levels, particularly in females as emphasized by a bioaccumulation index. On the other hand, increases in summer were mainly driven by non-contamination related factors. Males and females exhibited different patterns of metal accumulation and biochemical responses, with females being more responsive, as confirmed by a general stress index (IBR). Results recommend gender separation in biomonitoring programs using crabs. The integration of biochemical responses into IBR substantiated data interpretation. This is particularly relevant under moderate contamination allowing for better site-distinction rather than biochemical responses considered individually. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A eutrophic and metal-contaminated coastal system (Obidos lagoon, Portugal) was monitored combining water/sediment quality parameters and Carcinus maenas biomarkers (accumulated metals, oxidative stress and biotransformation responses). Two confined branches (Barrosa and Bom-Sucesso) were surveyed and compared with a reference area. Both crab genders from Barrosa exhibited activation of hepatopancreas CAT, GPx and GST, pointing out this area as the major impacted in the lagoon. Females captured at Barrosa were more vulnerable to peroxidative damage while only males showed decreased EROD activity, reinforcing gender specificities. In general, responses were not directly attributed to metals in hepatopancreas, as supported by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). However, higher metals (Ni, Cu, Cd) and nutrients levels registered in Barrosa water were associated with the observed oxidative stress responses by PCA. Despite the difficulty to establish cause–effect relationships due to the co-occurrence of various stressors and their interactions, the adopted integrated monitoring strategy appears to be promising.